tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-58749567763569469072024-03-20T08:12:17.154-07:00Electronic Circuits Diagramfree electronics project circuit diagramssaifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.comBlogger1180125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-15141046003947880522024-02-24T10:40:00.000-08:002024-02-24T10:40:13.934-08:00Counting Small Items Using Edge Impulse<div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Object classification and counting are essential for factory automation and devices where different objects are sorted or counted during packaging. Factories producing buttons, chocolates, and similar items require accurate counting for efficient packaging, which is a time-consuming and costly process when done manually.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Implementing an automation system to detect, classify, sort, and count objects can significantly streamline the production process. This project aims to create a cost-effective device for implementing such a factory automation system.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Object classifications are easily achievable using Edge Impulse models. You can distinguish between a man and an animal, a bicycle and other types of vehicles, and so on.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Initially designed for MCU-level implementation on devices like ESP32 and Arduino Nicla Vision, the project was intended for counting a small area of 120 pixels x 120 pixels, with a relatively small-sized button as the object of interest.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">However, it became apparent that even for this small area, the MCUs were inadequate, as the model file itself is approximately 8MB long. Consequently, the project was eventually installed on a Raspberry Pi computer, where it operates seamlessly. Refer to Fig. 1 for an illustration of the author’s working prototype.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZx3hyphenhyphenxdUCSUSQ8C4PSsVnLpcxkH30AwnNuXHbgknvpMH3Rh8DLbFQSWcJI4NdxBhIZfPs_GlW0K6WpIcBuUeuao3E-5pzCMSohSUnLwsmr5EzRGUW5p7ZtepWjr8YgCXhqrQuUMrtSgeQ5rYHOk9RkUhLm5gv3ivXosqzHlsHVS1PNFEyoJyeH-azbpHM/s800/Authors-working-prototype.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="360" data-original-width="800" height="144" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjZx3hyphenhyphenxdUCSUSQ8C4PSsVnLpcxkH30AwnNuXHbgknvpMH3Rh8DLbFQSWcJI4NdxBhIZfPs_GlW0K6WpIcBuUeuao3E-5pzCMSohSUnLwsmr5EzRGUW5p7ZtepWjr8YgCXhqrQuUMrtSgeQ5rYHOk9RkUhLm5gv3ivXosqzHlsHVS1PNFEyoJyeH-azbpHM/s320/Authors-working-prototype.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The components required for the project are listed in the Bill of Materials table.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Bill of materials</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Components<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Quantity</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Raspberry PI Zero W /4<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span> 1</div><div style="text-align: justify;">RPi camera module<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span> 1</div><div style="text-align: justify;">SD card 18Gb and above 1</div><div style="text-align: justify;">HDMI display<span style="white-space: pre;"> </span> 1</div><h2 style="text-align: justify;">Raspberry Pi and Camera Connection:</h2><div style="text-align: justify;">Refer to Fig. 2 for the camera connection with the Raspberry Pi. Connect the Raspberry Pi camera and display as shown in the picture and connect the HDMI display to the HDMI port of the Raspberry Pi.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEF2LJeGj3sP8OJdu6yqV_kFIfv6rFKNcLc_vk_xnaxvWzcRnf0hegK4Fn4YhF8j9yAwgb9R5t1Pg2UgzG-2rZJMQUFL4B1hzaL9NhCPQMOy597vNwO9ygQv6f42Re_SwAj1iqxOgyJZQIWMH42ZV4DntaQ0c4MnOcPVXlzzyLy-e9TpMTjei7k6e8KGs4/s1024/Camera-connection-to-Raspberry-Pi-768x1024.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="1024" data-original-width="768" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEF2LJeGj3sP8OJdu6yqV_kFIfv6rFKNcLc_vk_xnaxvWzcRnf0hegK4Fn4YhF8j9yAwgb9R5t1Pg2UgzG-2rZJMQUFL4B1hzaL9NhCPQMOy597vNwO9ygQv6f42Re_SwAj1iqxOgyJZQIWMH42ZV4DntaQ0c4MnOcPVXlzzyLy-e9TpMTjei7k6e8KGs4/s320/Camera-connection-to-Raspberry-Pi-768x1024.jpg" width="240" /></a></div><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Creating ML Model for Object Classification and Counting:</div><div style="text-align: justify;">To create the machine language (ML) model, you need to classify and recognize objects. Various platforms like TensorFlow, Edge Impulse, and Google Teachable can be used for this purpose.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Start by opening an account on edgeimpulse.com using an email ID. Collect a handful of similar types of buttons. If you access the site from a Raspberry Pi computer, use the camera to collect images of buttons from various angles, which is crucial for real-world deployment.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">Edge Impulse also allows connecting your cell phone or laptop for input device convenience in the data acquisition phase. Refer to Fig. 3 for Edge Impulse device addition and data collection.</div><h2 style="text-align: justify;"><br />The Project:</h2><div><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The Edge Impulse project is broadly divided into the following steps:</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">(a) Data Acquisition: This involves collecting various types of data such as images, sound, temperatures, distances, etc. Some of these data are separated as test data, while all others are used as training data.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">(b) Impulse Design: This step is further subdivided into creating impulses, with sub-divisions for:</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">1. Input parameters: image [width, height], sound [sound parameter].</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">2. Processing block: How to process the input data</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">3. Learning block: [Object data of this model]</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">4. Image processing: Generate features of the collected images</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">5. Object detection: Select your neural network model and train the model</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">The object detection part requires expertise, or one could call it a trial-and-error effort, to achieve an accuracy level of 85% or above. There are several models to try, and anything above 90% is considered excellent.</div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;">However, it should not be 100% accurate, as this could indicate issues with the data. For this device, the accuracy achieved was 98.6%, which is commendable for a starter project, considering the limited dataset of around 40 instances.</div><div style="text-align: justify;">Sourced by:<span face=""Open Sans", "Open Sans Regular", sans-serif" style="background-color: white; color: #747474; font-size: 18px; font-style: italic; text-align: left;">Somnath Bera <a href="https://www.electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/small-object-classification-and-counting" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">EFY</a></span></div>saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-71937469606071343332024-02-21T08:30:00.000-08:002024-02-21T08:30:43.611-08:00High Voltage Practical Robotic Two Port S Parameter Passive Circuit Using Spice<p style="text-align: justify;"> RF-controlled robot design requires S parameters to model and simulate various electronic passive resistors, inductors, and capacitor circuits represented as two-port networks. Examples demonstrating the usefulness of the technique and models in simulation are provided. The procedure and technique for simulation of two ports using Z, H parameters are extended by similar steps using analogue behavioural modelling, as is done for S parameters in a two-port with original SPICE2G for robotic circuits, using computer-aided simulation tools like SPICE/ Pspice at high frequencies.</p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijPGn1bXkjFR-0SudwH3SyeqjfKJaNITETIqG-CF8RpCPVp0x6imRsJNQLCnyq0rjYqsWLIlOrF5znYmAvCj6jn-bbAczy3jjdlz7xA3gaLOIJwDhmxdURgk7yueHarRg3_TCXkKL0T-NyhY-izzBes-W4e-0xsQNYazrfNhC8NYjVXi0ZpBPUWlX75xlK/s666/Tow-port-netwok.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="560" data-original-width="666" height="326" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijPGn1bXkjFR-0SudwH3SyeqjfKJaNITETIqG-CF8RpCPVp0x6imRsJNQLCnyq0rjYqsWLIlOrF5znYmAvCj6jn-bbAczy3jjdlz7xA3gaLOIJwDhmxdURgk7yueHarRg3_TCXkKL0T-NyhY-izzBes-W4e-0xsQNYazrfNhC8NYjVXi0ZpBPUWlX75xlK/w388-h326/Tow-port-netwok.jpg" width="388" /></a></div><br /><p style="text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Introduction</p><p style="text-align: justify;">In the present age of modern electronics, almost all engineers and scientists are familiar with robots as they are extensively used in human life. The RF-controlled Robot utilises a transmitting device containing an RF transmitter and an RF Encoder, sending commands to the robots for specified tasks such as moving back and forth, reversing, turning right/left, and stopping. To design RF transmitters in RF and microwave systems, S-parameters [1-6] are common, and these parameters can be measured with the help of network analysers. <a href="https://www.electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/high-voltage-practical-robotic-two-port-s-parameter-passive-circuit-using-spice" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">See More</a></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Sourced by: <span style="background-color: white; color: #747474; font-family: "Open Sans", "Open Sans Regular", sans-serif; font-size: 18px; font-style: italic; text-align: left;"> EFY</span></p>saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-74228618446399184652023-07-23T23:12:00.002-07:002023-07-23T23:12:24.793-07:00How To Build LIDAR Micro Drone With Proximity Sense?<p style="text-align: justify;"> <span style="background-color: #f7f7f8; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; white-space: pre-wrap;">Building a LIDAR-equipped micro drone with proximity sensing capabilities involves integrating a LIDAR sensor into a small drone platform and using the sensor data to enable obstacle detection and avoidance. Below is a step-by-step guide to help you get started with the project:</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDrm1ibNYKYBl9Bgbk0rzr0nmrl79FcujsdsrNoUgWvGB7YEMfmT-ruCmvc89_BS7LOI3RppDxib_KnoBOfjtmHPiyYIOabjh35Dh893oQorKt4Trb3jCtSvkSSMrNz8k1wR7fkPdpag-KrCTBtEV-Y5Ix0SZOpefjuX-LlUaoBm_XGod-My-N3pjXihMn/s1200/csm_og_mdLiDAR_microdrones_31f92c4244.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="630" data-original-width="1200" height="168" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgDrm1ibNYKYBl9Bgbk0rzr0nmrl79FcujsdsrNoUgWvGB7YEMfmT-ruCmvc89_BS7LOI3RppDxib_KnoBOfjtmHPiyYIOabjh35Dh893oQorKt4Trb3jCtSvkSSMrNz8k1wR7fkPdpag-KrCTBtEV-Y5Ix0SZOpefjuX-LlUaoBm_XGod-My-N3pjXihMn/s320/csm_og_mdLiDAR_microdrones_31f92c4244.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><p style="text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 1: Gather the Components</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Micro Drone Platform: Select a small-sized drone with a stable flight performance, such as a mini quadcopter or a micro drone.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">LIDAR Sensor: Choose a lightweight and compact LIDAR sensor capable of providing accurate distance measurements.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Microcontroller: Use a microcontroller board like Arduino or Raspberry Pi to process the LIDAR data and control the drone's flight.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Motor Controllers: Depending on the drone's motor configuration, you may need motor controllers to manage the motors' speed and direction.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Battery: Select a suitable battery to power the drone and the added components.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 2: Prepare the Drone</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Disassemble the micro drone and create a space to mount the LIDAR sensor and microcontroller securely.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 3: Install the LIDAR Sensor</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Carefully mount the LIDAR sensor on the drone's frame, ensuring it has an unobstructed view of the surroundings. Secure it firmly to avoid any vibrations during flight.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 4: Connect the LIDAR Sensor to the Microcontroller</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Establish the necessary connections between the LIDAR sensor and the microcontroller board. Follow the sensor and microcontroller datasheets or guides for wiring instructions.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 5: Write the Software</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Program the microcontroller to read data from the LIDAR sensor.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Implement algorithms for obstacle detection and proximity sensing based on the LIDAR data.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Use the sensor readings to adjust the drone's flight path to avoid obstacles.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 6: Flight Testing and Calibration</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Power on the drone and test the LIDAR sensor's functionality.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Calibrate the LIDAR sensor to ensure accurate distance measurements.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Perform flight tests in a controlled environment to observe the drone's behavior and obstacle avoidance capabilities.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 7: Refinement</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Analyze the drone's performance and make necessary adjustments to the software and hardware to enhance its proximity sensing and obstacle avoidance.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 8: Safety Measures</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Implement safety features to ensure the drone does not get too close to obstacles or people.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Consider adding emergency stop mechanisms in case of sensor failures or unexpected behavior.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 9: Enclosure and Aesthetics</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Design and build an outer casing or enclosure to protect the drone's components, especially the LIDAR sensor, during flight.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">If desired, add visual features to improve the drone's appearance.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;"><b>Step 10: Documentation and Sharing</b></p><ul style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; display: flex; flex-direction: column; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; list-style-image: initial; list-style-position: initial; margin: 1.25em 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: pre-wrap;"><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Document the project with detailed instructions, code, and any modifications made to the drone.</li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;"><br /></li><li style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin: 0px; min-height: 28px; padding-left: 0.375em; text-align: justify;">Share your creation on online platforms or with the drone community to inspire and help others.</li></ul><p style="--tw-border-spacing-x: 0; --tw-border-spacing-y: 0; --tw-ring-color: rgba(69,89,164,.5); --tw-ring-offset-color: #fff; --tw-ring-offset-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-ring-offset-width: 0px; --tw-ring-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-rotate: 0; --tw-scale-x: 1; --tw-scale-y: 1; --tw-scroll-snap-strictness: proximity; --tw-shadow-colored: 0 0 transparent; --tw-shadow: 0 0 transparent; --tw-skew-x: 0; --tw-skew-y: 0; --tw-translate-x: 0; --tw-translate-y: 0; background-color: #f7f7f8; border: 0px solid rgb(217, 217, 227); box-sizing: border-box; color: #374151; font-family: Söhne, ui-sans-serif, system-ui, -apple-system, "Segoe UI", Roboto, Ubuntu, Cantarell, "Noto Sans", sans-serif, "Helvetica Neue", Arial, "Apple Color Emoji", "Segoe UI Emoji", "Segoe UI Symbol", "Noto Color Emoji"; font-size: 16px; margin: 1.25em 0px 0px; text-align: justify; white-space: pre-wrap;">Building a LIDAR micro drone with proximity sense is an advanced project that requires expertise in electronics, programming, and drone mechanics. Make sure to take safety precautions and thoroughly test the drone before using it in more challenging environments.</p>saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-6362516305050423032023-07-23T23:05:00.002-07:002023-07-23T23:05:53.593-07:00How to Build 8 Leg Spider Robot? Step by Step<p style="text-align: justify;"> Building an 8-legged spider robot is a complex and challenging project that requires expertise in robotics, electronics, and programming. Below is a high-level step-by-step guide to help you get started. Keep in mind that this is a general outline, and you will need to conduct further research and learning to complete the project successfully.</p><table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdU6iBIV3srwAtTCovubuaDMU8h4QWn2w_YddSAXePWDbfzL5mv4uTAlw77XFT_jacFowd_ksJlwyvKSNn6yHOGS6p0y-Nu4hkoXn8erjaYpwkIs7Eh-1W85pS-xn8MWR937vlZTutexb_kNX_I6-rItsfVZRpUg_vAJFGLwo_-iL4LDtxASN18_Q8l_N-/s548/theo-jansen-spider-robot-web-main.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" data-original-height="460" data-original-width="548" height="269" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhdU6iBIV3srwAtTCovubuaDMU8h4QWn2w_YddSAXePWDbfzL5mv4uTAlw77XFT_jacFowd_ksJlwyvKSNn6yHOGS6p0y-Nu4hkoXn8erjaYpwkIs7Eh-1W85pS-xn8MWR937vlZTutexb_kNX_I6-rItsfVZRpUg_vAJFGLwo_-iL4LDtxASN18_Q8l_N-/s320/theo-jansen-spider-robot-web-main.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b>How to Build 8 Leg Spider Robot? Step by Step</b></td></tr></tbody></table><br /><p style="text-align: justify;"><br /></p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 1: Research and Planning</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Understand the basic principles of robotics and kinematics. Study existing spider robot designs and projects to get an idea of the challenges and solutions. Decide on the size, materials, and specific features you want for your spider robot.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 2: Components and Materials</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Create a list of components you'll need, such as motors, sensors, microcontrollers, batteries, and structural materials.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Choose the appropriate type and size of servomotors or actuators for each leg. High-torque servos are usually preferred for robust movement.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 3: Mechanical Design</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Design the overall body and leg structure of the spider robot using CAD software. Ensure that the legs are arranged in an appropriate configuration to achieve stable and balanced movement. Print or fabricate the mechanical parts using 3D printing, CNC machining, or other suitable methods.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 4: Electronic Assembly</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Connect the chosen servomotors to the legs as per the design. Assemble the electronic components on a custom PCB or a breadboard, including the microcontroller, motor drivers, and sensors.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 5: Sensor Integration</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Integrate various sensors like ultrasonic distance sensors or infrared sensors to help the robot detect obstacles and adjust its movement accordingly.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 6: Programming</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Choose a suitable programming language (e.g., Arduino IDE using C/C++ or Python) and program the microcontroller to control the movements of the spider robot. Implement inverse kinematics algorithms to calculate the angles and positions of each leg for smooth walking.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 7: Testing and Debugging</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Test each leg's movement and sensor readings individually. Debug any issues with the hardware or software.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 8: Power Supply</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Choose a suitable power source, such as rechargeable batteries, to power the robot. Make sure the power supply is sufficient to drive all the motors and electronic components.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 9: Fine-tuning and Calibration</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Fine-tune the robot's gait and movements to achieve stability and smooth walking. Calibrate the sensors to ensure accurate readings and response to the environment.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 10: Enclosure and Aesthetics</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Design and build an outer casing or enclosure for the spider robot if desired. Add aesthetic features to give your robot a spider-like appearance.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 11: Safety Considerations</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Implement safety features to prevent the robot from causing harm or damage during operation.</p><p style="text-align: justify;"><b>Step 12: Documentation and Sharing</b></p><p style="text-align: justify;">Document your project with detailed instructions, schematics, and code for others to learn from and replicate.Share your project on robotics forums or social media to get feedback and inspire others.</p><p style="text-align: justify;">Remember that building a complex robot like an 8-legged spider robot requires knowledge in various fields, including mechanical engineering, electronics, and programming. Take your time, do thorough research, and be prepared to face challenges along the way.</p>saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-21265737386347769222020-04-06T03:18:00.002-07:002020-04-06T03:18:12.028-07:00Inexpensive and Open-Source Ventilator Developed By MIT Engineers<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>The rapid increase of infectious disease cases and lack of adequate medical equipment to counter them can put the entire medical infrastructure at standstill. In times like these, it is up to engineers and technicians to come up with innovative solutions and provide extraordinary assistance. </b> </div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CE6STeryRJo/XosBWAzvPPI/AAAAAAAAK5o/eMqrYwB9-eoUcpU9Imx5L2ES1jKOkIz2wCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Ventilator%2BDeveloped%2BBy%2BMIT%2BEngineers.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Ventilator Developed By MIT Engineers" border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" height="300" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-CE6STeryRJo/XosBWAzvPPI/AAAAAAAAK5o/eMqrYwB9-eoUcpU9Imx5L2ES1jKOkIz2wCLcBGAsYHQ/s400/Ventilator%2BDeveloped%2BBy%2BMIT%2BEngineers.jpg" title="Ventilator Developed By MIT Engineers" width="400" /></a></div>
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Healthcare workers are very busy people who have to attend to the sick round the clock. And due to the widespread transmission of the highly contagious <b>COVID-19</b> around the world, a record number of infected cases have been reported. This has made their job of improving a patient’s life strenuous. Adding to that, a general shortage of ventilation machines has put the entire medical infrastructure, including the support staff in a state of helplessness.</div>
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Several efforts have been made by various organisations and institutions across the globe to overcome this severe imbalance of demand and supply. One such cross-disciplinary team constituting of engineers, physicians, computer scientists and others from MIT has devised a <b>ventilator</b> that is highly efficient, portable and inexpensive.</div>
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<b>Brief introduction about ventilator</b></div>
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When a person is hospitalised due to a respiratory illness (accompanied by shortness of breath), then that patient is put under a <b>ventilator</b>. It is a machine that provides mechanical ventilation, or artificially assisted air supply to support the patient’s respiratory organs such as lungs.</div>
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While a normal breathing rate is about 15 breaths a minute (BPM), an inability to respire properly can increase this rate to about 28 BPM. In such a scenario, a <b>ventilator</b> can play a crucial role in ensuring survivability.</div>
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<b>Emergency ventilator</b></div>
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The inexpensive <b>ventilator</b> unit termed as MIT E-Vent (short for emergency <b>ventilator</b>) has been designed around a manual resuscitator, also known as an Ambu bag. This hand-held equipment is present in large quantities in several hospitals. With the help of manual compression, air is pumped into the lungs via the patient’s airway. Read more <a href="https://www.electronicsforu.com/technology-trends/inexpensive-and-open-source-ventilator-developed-by-mit-engineers" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">Click Here</a></div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-57202136638875646892020-03-27T06:36:00.003-07:002020-03-27T06:36:38.077-07:00100W Inverter Schematic Diagram <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>100W Inverter Schematic Diagram. An inverter will
convert the DC voltage to an AC voltage. In most cases, the input DC
voltage is usually lower than the output voltage of the inverter while
the output AC is equal to the grid supply voltage 120 volts, or 240
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Simple 100W Inverter Schematic Diagram</h3>
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<b><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-B5JQ2YViGis/Xn38noQK-1I/AAAAAAAABLY/AwCk8frWhiQGMWaNbDxX5CsMSQ9jfgW6wCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Simple%2B100W%2BInverter%2BSchematic%2BDiagram.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Simple%2B100W%2BInverter%2BSchematic%2BDiagram" border="0" data-original-height="348" data-original-width="904" height="153" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-B5JQ2YViGis/Xn38noQK-1I/AAAAAAAABLY/AwCk8frWhiQGMWaNbDxX5CsMSQ9jfgW6wCLcBGAsYHQ/s400/Simple%2B100W%2BInverter%2BSchematic%2BDiagram.jpg" title="Simple%2B100W%2BInverter%2BSchematic%2BDiagram" width="400" /></a></b></div>
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<br />
<b>Circuit Part List</b><br />
<br />
Resistors<br />
22K Resistor 3x<br />
220 Ohm Resistor 2x<br />
100 Ohm Resistor 1x<br />
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<b>Diode</b><br />
4007 Diode 1x<br />
10V Zener 1x<br />
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<b>IC</b><br />
4047 IC + 14 Pin IC socket 1x<br />
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<b>Capacitor</b><br />
0.01uf capacitor 1x<br />
100uf capacitor 1x<br />
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<b>MOSFETS</b><br />
IRF 3205 mosfet 2x<br />
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<b>Varo Board</b><br />
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<b>Transformer</b><br />
Center Tap (CT) Transformer. Input 12-0-12, while the output refer to
your standard home electricity (every county may different).<br />
<br />
In the tutorial, it use 12-6-0-6-12 5 amp Transformer you can call it
120 VA transformer. You can use any kind of 12 -0-12 transformer.</div>
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Please take a note that this inverter can handle up to 100w of load but
be careful, on the 100w of load you should use Heatsinks with those
mosfets.<br />
<br />
Sourced by : <a href="https://circuitsproject.blogspot.com/2020/03/simple-100w-inverter-schematic-diagram.html" target="_blank">Link</a></div>
saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-64039628389368115452020-03-21T06:19:00.002-07:002020-03-21T06:19:15.250-07:00Study Says, Android Auto and Apple CarPlay are more dangerous than texting<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>In recent years, mobile operating systems such as Android or iOS have gone from being simple phone systems to becoming the center of our digital lives, reaching devices such as television, watches or even the car itself.</b></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Dgt8B_TEoHM/XnYT26H-y9I/AAAAAAAAK48/08jrsFfYg2or6xzfUvE6LLWaQyga1QdyQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Android%2BAuto%2Band%2BApple%2BCarPlay%2Bare%2Bmore%2Bdangerous%2Bthan%2Btexting.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Android Auto and Apple CarPlay are more dangerous than texting" border="0" data-original-height="675" data-original-width="1200" height="225" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Dgt8B_TEoHM/XnYT26H-y9I/AAAAAAAAK48/08jrsFfYg2or6xzfUvE6LLWaQyga1QdyQCLcBGAsYHQ/s400/Android%2BAuto%2Band%2BApple%2BCarPlay%2Bare%2Bmore%2Bdangerous%2Bthan%2Btexting.jpg" title="Android Auto and Apple CarPlay are more dangerous than texting" width="400" /></a></div>
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Tools like Android Auto or Apple CarPlay promised to be a solution to avoid using the phone while driving, but it seems that the solution would not be much better than the original problem. Or, at least, is what this study suggests.</div>
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<b>Android Auto and CarPlay are more distracting than driving using a mobile</b></div>
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Today it is prohibited to use the mobile phone while driving, as well as driving under the influence of alcohol or other substances. The objective of these prohibitions is none other than to avoid any cause that prevents us from losing concentration behind the wheel.</div>
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A new study could set a precedent against the systems that project the information from our mobile to the dashboard since they have shown very interesting information that shows that Android Auto and Apple Carplay could be one more danger behind the wheel.</div>
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In the IAM RoadSmart study, they compared reaction times, considering that the reaction time of a typical driver is one second.</div>
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Exceeding the alcohol rate, the reaction time was 12% slower, while after consuming cannabis the time increase to 21% more. And then we find mobile operating systems:</div>
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<b>Smartphone:</b></div>
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<ul>
<li> Hands-free: 27% slower.</li>
<li> Typing: 35% slower.</li>
<li> Holding the mobile phone with your hands: 46% slower.</li>
<li><br /></li>
<li> Hands-free: 30% slower.</li>
<li> Touching touchscreen: 53% slower.</li>
</ul>
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<b>CarPlay:</b></div>
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<ul>
<li> Hands-free: 36% slower.</li>
<li> Touching the touch screen: 57%</li>
</ul>
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<b>The one that comes out worse in the comparison is Apple’s CarPlay.</b></div>
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<b>Is this type of study valid?</b></div>
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Given this type of study, it is reasonable that we have several thoughts. There will be those who directly think that these systems are a danger and should disappear, while there will be people who do not feel that these systems become so distracting.</div>
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In the end it is something that depends a lot on the driver. These statistics should be a signal to the interface designers of these car systems. As much as there are users that the use of technology does not penalize their ability to react, there is a group of people who do, something that should serve as a warning to simplify these systems before it can lead to something worse.</div>
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Remember that the most important thing when driving is getting there, and that there is no message important enough to be misled behind the wheel. You will read it when you can make a stop or reach your destination.</div>
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<strong>Source :</strong><a data-wpel-link="external" href="https://www.iamroadsmart.com/campaign-pages/end-customer-campaigns/infotainment#" rel="nofollow noopener noreferrer" target="_blank">IAMroadSmart</a> </div>
saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-16751128590829552642020-03-02T21:30:00.001-08:002020-03-02T21:30:06.538-08:00Simple Automatic Anchor Light Circuit Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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This is a Simple Automatic Anchor Light Circuit Diagram.Most of the cruisers do not use a masthead anchor light because the light is too high above the water level and actually makes it difficult to judge the position of the boat from just the anchor light, especially in a pitch-dark anchorage. That is why many people have devised their own forms of anchor lights that they stick lower to the deck on both sides of their boat.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_veMnHqxAXg/Xl3ppTkdtZI/AAAAAAAAK3o/UEE5P5stUYop4Pm3pTrTm8OB1UMhJLrygCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/A%2Btypical%2Bcommercial%2Banchor%2Blight.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="421" data-original-width="433" height="310" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-_veMnHqxAXg/Xl3ppTkdtZI/AAAAAAAAK3o/UEE5P5stUYop4Pm3pTrTm8OB1UMhJLrygCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/A%2Btypical%2Bcommercial%2Banchor%2Blight.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Here is the circuit of a compact yet inexpensive automatic anchor light integrated with an ambient light sensor that turns it on and off automatically. This 12-volt LED light can be used as a traditional masthead anchor light and/or as an optional pretty clever custom-built anchor light. A typical commercial anchor light is shown in Fig. 2.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bRGNOO6BvGk/Xl3pteD7emI/AAAAAAAAK3s/Vo9sdu5u6JcibtX2iFRXpx-GNlKnAtFZACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/parts%2Blist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="598" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bRGNOO6BvGk/Xl3pteD7emI/AAAAAAAAK3s/Vo9sdu5u6JcibtX2iFRXpx-GNlKnAtFZACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/parts%2Blist.jpg" width="265" /></a></div>
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The circuit described here (refer Fig. 3) lets you control an electromagnetic relay so that it turns on a white LED light when the preset light level is reached and turns it off when a different preset level is reached. The circuit is built around NE555 IC (IC1). The 5mm light dependent resistor (LDR1) in the circuit triggers the 12V electromagnetic relay (RL1) as per the ambient light level. RL1 drives the 10mm white LED light source (LED2). Series resistor (R2) is included to limit the white LED current.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XWwdabsy-KY/Xl3pzTWERYI/AAAAAAAAK3w/4IPuAYBQenAVMrzYiBmU_N6WRn8KWbyHwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bthe%2Banchor%2Blight.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Automatic Anchor Light Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="508" height="264" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-XWwdabsy-KY/Xl3pzTWERYI/AAAAAAAAK3w/4IPuAYBQenAVMrzYiBmU_N6WRn8KWbyHwCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bthe%2Banchor%2Blight.jpg" title="Automatic Anchor Light Circuit Diagram" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b> Fig. 3: Circuit diagram of the anchor light</b></div>
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Note that switching threshold is determined by a 470k potentiometer (VR1) that causes the output to toggle with the preset threshold values. The light source (LED2) automatically switches on when it gets dark and switches off when there is sufficient ambient light. The 100µF capacitor (C1) provides a bit of hysteresis to prevent the circuit from jittering near the threshold level. The circuit is optimised for use with a nominal DC voltage of 12V drawn from any standard accumulator commonly used in boats.</div>
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<b>Construction and testing</b></div>
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A single-side PCB pattern for the anchor light circuit is shown in Fig. 4 and its component layout in Fig. 5.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fhfKIQvaf8Y/Xl3p6pltUXI/AAAAAAAAK30/ZcHWIvuwC_wuhK5CfI-UlDzdtRl2CunaACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/PCB%2Bpattern%2Bof%2Bthe%2Banchor%2Blight%2Bcircuit.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="PCB pattern of the anchor light circuit" border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="637" height="210" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fhfKIQvaf8Y/Xl3p6pltUXI/AAAAAAAAK30/ZcHWIvuwC_wuhK5CfI-UlDzdtRl2CunaACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/PCB%2Bpattern%2Bof%2Bthe%2Banchor%2Blight%2Bcircuit.jpg" title="PCB pattern of the anchor light circuit" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 4: PCB pattern of the anchor light circuit</b></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TG8rMXjI_gs/Xl3qDQdB_rI/AAAAAAAAK34/Qgze36HklvwEB3NJJ79O7HM1LMcmjijCwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Component%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Component layout of the PCB" border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="632" height="212" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TG8rMXjI_gs/Xl3qDQdB_rI/AAAAAAAAK34/Qgze36HklvwEB3NJJ79O7HM1LMcmjijCwCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Component%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" title="Component layout of the PCB" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 5: Component layout of the PCB</b></div>
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The circuit assembled on the small PCB can fit easily inside most prototype/custom enclosures, which should be waterproof for mounting on the masthead.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-lcsy2iWrzxI/Xl3qMkwgDOI/AAAAAAAAK38/HMcLia-WhYgJDvwZSxLTfGiknqAhXWN7gCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Suggested%2Benclosure%2Blayout.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Suggested enclosure layout" border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="252" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-lcsy2iWrzxI/Xl3qMkwgDOI/AAAAAAAAK38/HMcLia-WhYgJDvwZSxLTfGiknqAhXWN7gCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Suggested%2Benclosure%2Blayout.jpg" title="Suggested enclosure layout" width="192" /></a></div>
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<b> Fig. 6: Suggested enclosure layout</b></div>
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If possible, try to add some optics (lens and reflector) with the white LED (LED2) to spread the light outward. The 12V power supply input wires can then be connected to corresponding wires extending from the existing electric-points of the anchor light. Fig. 6 shows how the prototype may be assembled. Author’s prototype is shown in Fig. 7.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jx6Cs-FNf80/Xl3qTRHnNSI/AAAAAAAAK4A/7m9ezYY0GIkPgZbJsDvo9dAm0idpi68DACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Author%25E2%2580%2599s%2Bprototype.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt=" Author’s prototype" border="0" data-original-height="374" data-original-width="653" height="183" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jx6Cs-FNf80/Xl3qTRHnNSI/AAAAAAAAK4A/7m9ezYY0GIkPgZbJsDvo9dAm0idpi68DACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Author%25E2%2580%2599s%2Bprototype.jpg" title=" Author’s prototype" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 7: Author’s prototype</b></div>
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Sourced By EFY : Authors name :<em>T.K. Hareendran</em></div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-1989401776551185802020-02-21T07:15:00.000-08:002020-02-21T07:15:54.207-08:00Power Supply For Adjustable Voltage And Current<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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How to make a Power Supply For Adjustable Voltage And Current, The circuit diagram of the power supply is shown in Fig. 1. It is built around bridge rectifier (BR1), adjustable voltage regulator LM350 (IC1), transistors BC327(T1) and BC337(T2), and a few other components.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--tqoPoGB3bg/Xk_yi31zp8I/AAAAAAAAK3E/gZHpIprcMEUrWk6kSoLeEJUK2kmQSqAQgCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bsimple%2Bpower%2Bsupply%2Bwith%2Badjustable%2Bvoltage%2Band%2Bcurrent%2Bwith%2BLM350.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Circuit diagram of the simple power supply with adjustable voltage and current with LM350" border="0" data-original-height="291" data-original-width="500" height="186" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/--tqoPoGB3bg/Xk_yi31zp8I/AAAAAAAAK3E/gZHpIprcMEUrWk6kSoLeEJUK2kmQSqAQgCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bsimple%2Bpower%2Bsupply%2Bwith%2Badjustable%2Bvoltage%2Band%2Bcurrent%2Bwith%2BLM350.jpg" title="Circuit diagram of the simple power supply with adjustable voltage and current with LM350" width="320" /></a></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of the simple power supply with adjustable voltage and current with LM350</b></div>
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Input to connector CON1 can be AC or DC. If you use an 18 to 20Vrms transformer with 2A current ratings, you can have output voltage VOUT1 from 1.2V up to around 16.5V available at CON3, and VOUT2 from 0V to 15V available at CON2. Input is protected with 2A fuse F1. Capacitors C3 and C5 (2200µF) are the main filtering capacitors.<br />
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Input voltage is limited by maximum input voltage of IC LM350. Maximum power dissipation of LM350 is around 25W.<br />
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According to the data sheet, input voltage of LM350 can be from around 4.5V to 35V, and output voltage can be adjusted from 1.2V to 33V; however, we need output voltage lower than 17V.<br />
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Output voltage VOUT1 can be calculated using the following relationship:<br />
VOUT1=1.25V (1+(VR2+VR3)/R7))<br />
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Output voltage VOUT2 is around 1.5V lower than VOUT1, and can consequently start from 0V.<br />
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Transistors T1 and T2 are implemented for adjustable current-limiting function along with potentiometer VR3. Minimum output current is around 0.35A, and depends on resistors R2 and VR3.<br />
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Wiper of VR3 should be at the right-most position to get minimum output current, and at the left-most position for maximum output current. Maximum output current is around 2A. When VR1 is adjusted for maximum output current, T1 and T2 will be on, and LED2 will glow. Otherwise, T1 and T2 will be off, and the LED2 will also be off.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7A2tXyyRcVo/Xk_yxHy349I/AAAAAAAAK3I/bxarO7t_86sCxCu0Uac9Qr3e3oMUMuI5QCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/parts%2Blist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="421" data-original-width="456" height="294" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-7A2tXyyRcVo/Xk_yxHy349I/AAAAAAAAK3I/bxarO7t_86sCxCu0Uac9Qr3e3oMUMuI5QCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/parts%2Blist.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Capacitors C4 and C9 prevent oscillations of T1 and T2 during transitional phases. Output voltage is adjusted with VR1 and VR3. VR2 is used for coarse adjustment, while VR3 is used for more precise output voltage adjustment.<br />
Construction and testing<br />
<br />
A PCB layout for this power supply circuit is shown in Fig. 2 and its component layout in Fig. 3. Assemble the circuit on the designed PCB or veroboard. Connect around 18 to 20Vrms input to CON1. Glowing of LED1 indicates the presence of power supply in the circuit. LED2 glows when higher current is taken from the load. LED3 glows when outputs are available at CON2 and CON3.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ofXSIWKk_fU/Xk_y2X9TiuI/AAAAAAAAK3Q/ttw9qwUp6c0Kq16Kpq_DGz0Ay9nrVhgrQCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bsimple%2Bvoltage%2Badjustable%2Bpower%2Bsupply.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="PCB layout of the simple voltage adjustable power supply" border="0" data-original-height="195" data-original-width="500" height="124" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ofXSIWKk_fU/Xk_y2X9TiuI/AAAAAAAAK3Q/ttw9qwUp6c0Kq16Kpq_DGz0Ay9nrVhgrQCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bsimple%2Bvoltage%2Badjustable%2Bpower%2Bsupply.jpg" title="PCB layout of the simple voltage adjustable power supply" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 2: PCB layout of the simple voltage adjustable power supply</b></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5Tty_qn53wk/Xk_zAc6bw6I/AAAAAAAAK3U/UTPfPsa1adgUSyNOqxUUoYBYsTEVkYCvwCLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/Components%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Components layout for the PCB" border="0" data-original-height="195" data-original-width="500" height="124" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5Tty_qn53wk/Xk_zAc6bw6I/AAAAAAAAK3U/UTPfPsa1adgUSyNOqxUUoYBYsTEVkYCvwCLcBGAsYHQ/s320/Components%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" title="Components layout for the PCB" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 3: Components layout for the PCB</b></div>
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Measure outputs across CON2 and CON3 using a voltmeter. You should be able to get output voltage VOUT1 from 1.2V up to around 16.5V, and VOUT2 from 0V to 15V depending on positions of VR2 and VR3.<br />
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Author : Petre Tzv Petrov Sourced By EFY</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-49992469526548254442019-11-19T08:31:00.000-08:002019-11-19T08:31:59.213-08:00PWM Dimmer/Motor Speed Controller<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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This is yet another project born of necessity. It's a simple circuit, but does exactly what it's designed to do - dim LED lights or control the speed of 12V DC motors. The circuit uses PWM to regulate the effective or average current through the LED array, 12V incandescent lamp (such as a car headlight bulb) or DC motor. The only difference between the two modes of operation is the addition of a power diode for motor speed control, although a small diode should be used for dimmers too, in case long leads are used which will create an inductive back EMF when the MOSFET switches off.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5YajDqoggzA/XdQYnHvnRbI/AAAAAAAAK1Y/42qhvpzOtpY8s5e0mCQIBk5Bp8zJBPG1ACLcBGAsYHQ/s1600/PWM%2BDimmer%2B1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="257" data-original-width="388" height="211" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5YajDqoggzA/XdQYnHvnRbI/AAAAAAAAK1Y/42qhvpzOtpY8s5e0mCQIBk5Bp8zJBPG1ACLcBGAsYHQ/s320/PWM%2BDimmer%2B1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Photo of Completed PWM Dimmer/Speed Control</b></div>
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The photo shows what a completed board looks like. Dimensions are 53 x 37mm, so it's possible to install it into quite small spaces. The parts used are readily available, and many subsitiutions are available for both the MOSFET and power diode (the latter is only needed for motor speed control). The opamps should not be substituted, because the ones used were chosen for low power and their ability to swing the output to the negative supply rail. Note that if used as a motor speed controller, there is no feedback, so motor speed will change with load. For many applications where DC motors are used, constant speed regardless of load is not needed or desirable, but it is up to you to decide if this will suit your needs.</div>
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<b>Description</b></div>
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First, a description of PWM is warranted. As the pot is rotated clockwise, the input voltage changes linearly with rotation. At first, the voltage is such that the comparator output is just narrow spikes, which turn the MOSFET on for a very short period. Average current is low, so connected LEDs will be quite dim, or a motor will run (relatively) slowly. As the input voltage coming from the pot increases, the MOSFET is on for longer and longer, so increasing power to the load.</div>
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<b>figure 1 - PWM Waveform Generation</b></div>
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Figure 1 shows how the PWM principle works. The red trace is the triangle wave reference voltage, and the green trace is the voltage from the pot. When the input voltage is greater than the reference voltage, the MOSFET turns on, and current flows in the load. Because the frequency is relatively high (about 600Hz), we don't see any flicker from the LEDs, but the tone is audible from a motor that's PWM controlled. The PWM signal is shown in blue. The average current through the load is determined by the ratio of on-time to off-time, and when both are equal, the average current is exactly half of that which would be drawn with DC.</div>
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<b>Figure 2 - Dimmer/Speed Controller Schematic</b></div>
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The circuit is shown in Figure 2. U1 is the oscillator, and generates a triangular waveform. R4 and R5 simply set a half voltage reference, so the opamps can function around a 6V centre voltage. U2A is an amplifier, and its output is a 10V peak to peak triangle wave that is used by the comparator based on U2B. This circuit compares the voltage from the pot with the triangle wave. If the input voltage is at zero, the comparator's output remains low, and the MOSFET is off. This is the zero setting. In reality, the reference triangle waveform is from a minimum of about 1.5V to a maximum of 9.5V, so there is a small section at each end of the pot's rotation where nothing happens. </div>
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This is normal and practical, since we want a well defined off and maximum setting. Because of this range, for lighting applications, an industry standard 0-10V DC control signal can be used to set the light level. C-BUS (as well as many other home automation systems) can provide 0-10V modules that can control the dimmer. While a 1N4004 diode is shown for D2, this is only suitable if the unit is used as a dimmer. For motor speed control, a high-current fast recovery diode is needed, such as a HFA15TB60PBF ultra-fast HEXFRED diode. There are many possibilities for the diode, so you can use whatever is readily available that has suitable ratings. The diode should be rated for at least half the full load current of the motor, and the HFA15TB60PBF suggested is good for 15A continuous, so is fine with motors drawing up to 30A. </div>
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<b>Construction</b></div>
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While it's certainly possible to build the dimmer on veroboard or similar, it's rather fiddly to make and mistakes are easily made. Also, be aware that because of the current the circuit can handle, you will need to use thick wires to reinforce some of the thin tracks. This is even necessary for the PCB version. Naturally, I recommend the PCB, and this is available from ESP. The board is small - 53 x 37mm, and it carries everything, including the screw terminals. The PCB is double-sided with plated-through holes, and has solder masks on both sides. The MOSFET will need a heatsink unless you are using the dimmer for light loads only. It is necessary to insulate the MOSFET from the heatsink in most cases, since the case of the transistor is the drain (PWM output).</div>
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For use at high current and possible high temperatures, the heatsink may need to be larger than expected. Although the MOSFET should normally only dissipate about 2W or so at 10A, it will dissipate a lot more if it's allowed to get hot. Switching MOSFETs will cheerfully go into thermal runaway and self destruct if they have inadequate heatsinking. You may also use an IGBT (insulated gate bipolar transistor) - most should have the same pinouts, and they do not suffer from the same thermal runaway problem as MOSFETs. As noted above, there are many different MOSFETs (or IGBTs) and fast diodes that are usable. The IRF540 MOSFET is a good choice, and being rated 27A it has a generous safety margin. There are many others that are equally suitable - in fact any switching MOSFET rated at 10A or more, and with a maximum voltage of more than 20V is quite ok. </div>
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<b>Testing</b></div>
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Connect to a suitable 12V power supply. When powering up for the first time, use a 100 ohm "safety" resisor in series with the positive supply to limit the current if you have made a mistake in the wiring. The total current drain is about 2.5mA with the pot fully off, rising to 12.5mA when fully on. Most of this current is in the LED, which is also fed from the PWM supply so you can see that everything is working without having to connect a load. Make sure that the pot is fully anti-clockwise (minimum), and apply power. You should measure no more than 0.25V across the safety resistor, rising to 1.25V with the pot at maximum. If satisfactory, remove the safety resistor and install a load. High intensity LED strip lights can draw up to ~1.5A each, and this dimmer should be able to drive up to 10 of them, depending on the capabilities of the power supply and the size of the heatsink for the MOSFET.</div>
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source: sound.westhost</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-77528188614545875262019-11-01T06:49:00.004-07:002019-11-01T06:49:35.607-07:00Filter and Polarity Guard for AC/DC Adaptors<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>The circuit diagram of the filter and polarity guard for the wall AC/DC adaptor is shown in the figure. It is built around a bridge rectifier (BR1), two inductors (L1 and L2), three LEDs, and a few capacitors and resistors.</b><br />
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The circuit has input polarity indicators LED1 and LED2, input fuse F1, input high frequency filter, bridge rectifier BR1, output LC filter and output voltage indicator LED3. Input polarity indicators show the polarities of input AC or DC power connections at connector CON1.<br />
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LED1 indicates reverse polarity, whereas LED2 indicates correct polarity of the input signal. Irrespective of input connections, polarities of output voltage at CON2 will not change. LED3 is on when output voltage is present at CON2.<br />
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Input filter is built around capacitors C1, C2 and C3 to stop the high frequency noise at input of the device. BR1 is used to ensure that output voltage does not depend on input polarity and, consequently, has fixed polarity. At output of BR1, there is a set of capacitors for reducing ripples and noise coming from the wall adaptor. After that, L1 and L2 further reduce the ripples and noise.</div>
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<b>Filter and Polarity Guard for AC/DC Adaptors circuits diagram</b></div>
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Output capacitor C9 provides good filtration at low frequencies and high output peak current. You can calculate the current capacity of this capacitor with the following relationship:<br />
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I=C×(dV/dT)<br />
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Here, I is the instantaneous current through the capacitor in amperes. C is capacitance in Farads. dV is change in voltage of capacitor in volts. dT is time interval or duration of the pulse applied on the capacitor in seconds. dV/dT is the instantaneous rate of voltage change over the capacitor as volts/second.<br />
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L1 and L2 are selected according to required output current and suppression of noise and ripples. All capacitors should be rated for at least 35V because most are designed for 19V and above.<br />
Construction and testing<br />
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It is easy to assemble the circuit on a Veroboard. The circuit does not require any adjustments to work properly. Input fuse F1 is selected according to the wall adaptor output rating.<br />
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Using the circuit is simple. Connect output of the adaptor to CON1. Then, connect output voltage from CON2 to the load or target device.<br />
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The circuit is simple but useful for wall AC/DC adaptors where it is important to reduce ripples and noise, and improve transient response of the adaptors. It can also be used in a wide range of switching and analogue power supplies.<br />
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The circuit has been developed for 26V and 19V wall adaptors, but by replacing some components, it can be used for other wall adaptors with output voltage starting from 5V. When input polarity is fixed, the bridge can be replaced with simple diodes depending on requirement.<br />
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Sourced By : EFY Author : P<em>etre Tzv Petrov</em> </div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-21249567068435140982019-07-04T05:28:00.000-07:002019-07-04T05:28:07.328-07:00Balanced Preamp Electret Microphone Circuit Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Among the tasks solved with the help of electret microphones, one can distinguish the sound of large rooms (for example, conference rooms, temples, etc.) with a relatively large distance from the sound source, which requires high sensitivity and noise immunity. Industrial microphones for such purposes are quite expensive and, in addition, require an autonomous power source for the preamp.</b></div>
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The purpose of this development was to reduce the cost of manufacturing a highly sensitive and noise-proof microphone, without significant loss of playback quality.</div>
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The basis is the scheme [1] of a balanced preamplifier, powered directly from phantom power (+48 V) of a mixing console:</div>
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<b>Balanced Preamp Electret Microphone Circuit Diagram</b></div>
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Its main disadvantage is excessive amplification, leading to clipping of the microphone-sensitive microphone inputs of the console. In addition, the electret microphone supply [2] is not rational enough, as well as the temperature-dependent displacement of the transistor bases on six diodes included as stabistors. The presence of these diodes, as well as electrolytic capacitors, increases the size of the board and does not contribute to miniaturization.</div>
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An attempt to replace diode stabilization with a reverse-shifted base-emitter junction of a planar transistor (KT315) was unsuccessful due to the increased noise (hiss) in the useful signal.<br />
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Therefore, in the subsequent stabilization was applied on the shunt regulator TL431, which demonstrated the practical absence of extraneous noise and high thermal stability of the bias voltage.</div>
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The final circuit of the electret microphone preamp is shown below.<br />
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Its features were additional collector resistors R7 and R9, about 4.5 times lowering the amplitude of the signal at the connector pins compared to the collectors of transistors VT1 and VT2, as well as setting the bias base VT2 directly from the divider connected to the control electrode of the shunt DA1 (+2.5 V). The electret microphone is powered from the cathode DA1 through the divider R3R6, so that the constant voltage on it is half the power supply (ie, +2.5 V from +5 V) and becomes equal to the voltage on the control electrode DA1. Such a microphone connection provides maximum sensitivity. It was tested in the project [3] and demonstrated its practical applicability.</div>
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The diagram is made on surface-mounted components (SMD) on a printed circuit board with dimensions 37 x 15 mm (drawing in * .lay7 format is given in the attachment):<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PFS_EfHHv1M/XR3vliKCHHI/AAAAAAAAKzs/6zP5ALKg5RwPMD3vA2Fql2WPxPJH9Z4OACEwYBhgL/s1600/4%2BBalanced%2BPreamp%2BElectric%2BMicrophone%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="275" data-original-width="796" height="110" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PFS_EfHHv1M/XR3vliKCHHI/AAAAAAAAKzs/6zP5ALKg5RwPMD3vA2Fql2WPxPJH9Z4OACEwYBhgL/s320/4%2BBalanced%2BPreamp%2BElectric%2BMicrophone%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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The setting is reduced to equalizing the potentials between the contact points (shown by an arrow), which are displayed on the front side of the board by rotating the trimming resistor slider.</div>
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Sourced By : <a href="http://circuitsstream.blogspot.com/">circuitsstream.blogspot.com</a></div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-39226344772150780872019-05-25T22:26:00.001-07:002019-05-25T22:26:03.508-07:00 Dual-tone multiple frequency Based Food Dispenser for Aquarium<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>Presented here is an Arduino-based automatic fish feeding system for an aquarium. Feeding the fish is a daily task, which can become a problem if you are out of station for more than a day. This dispenser just needs to call a cellphone number followed by another number to perform a particular task, like turning on the motor to feed the fish in the aquarium. This project requires two cellphones, one for making the call and another for receiving it.</b><br />
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<b>Circuit and working</b><br />
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The block diagram of the automatic food dispenser for an aquarium is shown in Fig. 1. The circuit diagram of the same is shown in Fig. 2. It consists of Arduino Uno board (Board1), DTMF decoder MT8870 (IC1), 5V voltage regulator 7805 (IC2), npn transistors BC547 (T1) and 2N2222 (T2), 5V relay (RL1), 12V DC motor and a few other components.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QjLS8dig2ik/XOohFahhvzI/AAAAAAAAKwA/BAUtUt3CRiIN7_9Wx4LRezMXVuKM8VuLQCLcBGAs/s1600/Block%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispensing%2Bsystem.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="73" data-original-width="500" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-QjLS8dig2ik/XOohFahhvzI/AAAAAAAAKwA/BAUtUt3CRiIN7_9Wx4LRezMXVuKM8VuLQCLcBGAs/s1600/Block%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispensing%2Bsystem.jpg" /></a></div>
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Fig. 1: Block diagram of automatic food dispensing system</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RqZPrLzB2dc/XOohhrjD3OI/AAAAAAAAKwI/8sIhqEe8pkQPAax_3_ejqSYFOSpX3XevgCLcBGAs/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispenser%2Bfor%2Baquarium.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="472" data-original-width="500" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-RqZPrLzB2dc/XOohhrjD3OI/AAAAAAAAKwI/8sIhqEe8pkQPAax_3_ejqSYFOSpX3XevgCLcBGAs/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispenser%2Bfor%2Baquarium.jpg" /></a></div>
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Fig. 2: Circuit diagram of automatic food dispenser for aquarium </div>
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<b>DTMF</b><br />
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Dual-tone multiple frequency (DTMF) is a signalling system for identifying the key or number dialed on a DTMF keypad. Generally, the keypad used is of 4×4 matrix type. Basically, DTMF is a sinusoidal tone, which is a combination of row and column frequencies, as shown in Table I.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HPLtlBhET3w/XOoh1X5PmGI/AAAAAAAAKwU/J5f8X5xH2N0nCudh57jGPjgbiMFuNXVWACLcBGAs/s1600/t1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="369" data-original-width="500" height="236" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HPLtlBhET3w/XOoh1X5PmGI/AAAAAAAAKwU/J5f8X5xH2N0nCudh57jGPjgbiMFuNXVWACLcBGAs/s320/t1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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In this project, DTMF decoder MT8870 (IC1) is used, which is powered by 5V DC supply. It is connected with an audio jack through a single transistor (T1) amplifier stage. The jack is connected to the audio port of the cellphone.<br />
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<b>Arduino Uno</b><br />
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Arduino board (Board1) is connected to IC1 and RL1, as shown in the circuit diagram. Here, pins 11 through 14 of IC1 are connected with digital I/O pins 2 through 5 of Arduino. Input signals received from IC1 are processed by Arduino.<br />
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<b>DC motor</b><br />
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A geared DC motor is connected to Arduino through RL1. A single-changeover relay is used here for controlling the geared DC motor.<br />
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A special arrangement is made on the shaft of the DC geared motor, which works as the dispensing unit. The food container is placed above the aquarium tank and contains sufficient food for the fish. A hole/slot is made at the bottom of the container. A suitable bottom lid for the container is attached to the shaft of the motor. A suitable slot is made in the lid, too.<br />
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Both the slots (container and lid) are of the same size. These slots are off-centred. The dispenser unit, which includes motor shaft, lid, container and slots, should be properly aligned. The proposed food dispenser assembly unit is shown in Fig. 3.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-C-xJ7KSZCbM/XOohx8J8HTI/AAAAAAAAKwQ/NL0psvnkHsQ9RXVToHgukI3hrbguanZMgCLcBGAs/s1600/Proposed%2Bfood%2Bdispenser%2Bassembly%2Bunit.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="250" data-original-width="500" height="160" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-C-xJ7KSZCbM/XOohx8J8HTI/AAAAAAAAKwQ/NL0psvnkHsQ9RXVToHgukI3hrbguanZMgCLcBGAs/s320/Proposed%2Bfood%2Bdispenser%2Bassembly%2Bunit.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Fig. 3: Proposed food dispenser assembly unit </div>
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When the lid rotates along the motor’s shaft, the slot gets aligned with the slot of the container. As soon as the two slots are aligned, food reserved in the container falls into the aquarium tank due to self-weight.<br />
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The sequence of operations to activate the dispensing unit is shown in the block diagram.<br />
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Two cellphones are needed in this project. The receiver cellphone must be set on auto-answering mode, so that when the caller calls, it should automatically receive the call.<br />
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After a call is established, a predefined sequence of numbers on the keypad are to be pressed on the caller’s phone. This sequence is defined in Arduino program. IC1 decoder receives key-pressed DTMF signals from the caller’s cellphone and decodes it. These decoded signals are obtained on pins 11 through 14 of IC1. These input signals are processed as per Arduino program and the mathematical equations of calculation of decibel and binary values. Binary value is calculated in the program from input signals using the arithmetic equation given below.<br />
<span style="color: red;"><br /></span>
<span style="color: red;">Binary value=1000×v4+100×v3 +10×v2+v1</span><br />
<span style="color: red;">where, v1-v4 are outputs from MT8870 DTMF IC.</span><br />
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Here, keys 2 and 5 on the caller’s cellphone are used for starting and stopping the DC geared motor, respectively. The program can be modified as per requirement. Table II shows the binary value for each key.<br />
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<b>Software</b><br />
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Arduino program (Aquarium_food_disp.ino) was used for this prototype. It must be uploaded to Arduino Uno. For this, Arduino IDE, which is an open source software, is needed. In the program, Arduino digital pins 2 through 5 are defined as input.<br />
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Main functions of Arduino code are explained below.<br />
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pinMode()<br />
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This configures the specified pin to behave either as input or output. (See the description of digital pins in Arduino manual for details on the functionality of pins.)<br />
digitalWrite()<br />
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If the pin has been configured as output with pinMode(), its voltage will be set to the corresponding value, which is 5V (or 3.3V on 3.3V boards) for high, and 0V (ground) for low.<br />
digitalRead()<br />
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This reads the value from a specified digital pin, as either high or low.<br />
begin(). This sets the data rate in bits per second (baud) for serial data transmission. For communicating with the computer, use one of these rates: 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 14400, 19200, 28800, 38400, 57600 or 115200. You can also specify other rates.<br />
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For example, to communicate with an external component over pins 0 and 1 of Arduino, a particular baud rate may be required.<br />
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Construction and testing<br />
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An actual-size PCB layout of the food dispenser is shown in Fig. 4 and its components layout in Fig. 5. Use a geared DC motor for rotating the lid. A 12V battery (BATT.1) is used to power the transistor amplifier stage, 7805 and Arduino board. Another 12V battery (BATT.2) is used to power the geared DC motor.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fVASi-p5Pqk/XOoikwFXhzI/AAAAAAAAKwk/R_ra_cSwz6o_eXI2T8JoeFsv2oMH5iXowCLcBGAs/s1600/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispenser.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="500" height="254" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fVASi-p5Pqk/XOoikwFXhzI/AAAAAAAAKwk/R_ra_cSwz6o_eXI2T8JoeFsv2oMH5iXowCLcBGAs/s320/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bautomatic%2Bfood%2Bdispenser.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Fig. 4: PCB layout of automatic food dispenser</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sNxcFw4GSgU/XOoikUQKfpI/AAAAAAAAKwg/2RLtIiiO6skKt3XHPl7Ln0gUBhd3-B2qwCLcBGAs/s1600/Components%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="500" height="254" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-sNxcFw4GSgU/XOoikUQKfpI/AAAAAAAAKwg/2RLtIiiO6skKt3XHPl7Ln0gUBhd3-B2qwCLcBGAs/s320/Components%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Fig. 5: Components layout for the PCB</div>
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Connect the DTMF module and receiver phone using a 3.5mm audio jack. Make sure that the receiver phone is on auto-answering mode. Now, make a call on the receiver phone. After the call is received, press 2 on the caller phone. If communication is established successfully, RL1 will be energised and motor M1 will start rotating its shaft. The lid will rotate along with the shaft. For stopping the motor, press 5 on the caller phone.</div>
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Author: Tej Vijaykumar Patel sourced by : EFY</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-19096216645238510342019-05-21T04:05:00.001-07:002019-05-21T04:05:20.603-07:00DC / DC converter for USB connections<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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This converter is inexpensive and quick to build, it is nothing more than a DC / DC converter, its use is for USB sockets or any other device that needs a stabilized voltage 5 Volts and a maximum current of 2 amps.</div>
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With this power converter, you insert a voltage from 6 Volts to 24 Volts and have a regulated output of 5 Volts per 2 Amperes. That is, you can use a car or motorcycle battery or your vehicle's cigarette lighter as power, and you will have an outlet to charge your cell phone, camera, etc.</div>
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<h3 style="text-align: justify;">
DC / DC converter for USB jacks</h3>
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The circuit is very simple, and you may have already seen it in some project here on the site, the circuit uses only five components, a 7805 positive voltage regulator integrated circuit, a TIP42 transistor, a 5 Ohm resistor and two disk capacitors or polyester, one of .33 and the other of .1 or 330 and 100 nF.</div>
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The capacitors are filters and accompany the voltage regulator 7805. This converter works perfectly, as long as you respect a number of devices connected to it. The creator himself says it's ideal for a small USB hub that does not have large, connected devices.</div>
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<b>DC / DC converter for USB connections Circuit</b></div>
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Above the electronic circuit diagram and the integrated circuit board of the converter, but because the circuit is compact, one can build the circuit without printed circuit board, ie using other ways of construction.<br />
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If you need more current, you will need to modify the circuit by adding a larger heat sink and even a more powerful transistor. The voltage regulator can be maintained since it only does the job of regulating the voltage at the base of the transistor and only a small current passes through it, requiring neither the installation of a heatsink on the 7805.<br />
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According to the creator of the project, any regulator integrated circuit of the line 78xx, 5, 6, 8 or 9 Volts can be used from a source of 12Volts.<br />
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The TIP42 was left with enough spacing around it to fit the small heat sink. The R1 resistor was calculated to maintain the maximum current through the TIP42, ie, about 2 Amperes.</div>
saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-89504825813502759742018-10-23T21:37:00.001-07:002018-10-23T21:37:47.472-07:00Low-Cost GPS Clock <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
Real-time clock (RTC) integrated circuits (ICs) are used for reasonably accurate time displays. The accuracy of RTCs mostly depends on the crystal. In a long run, a small-time deviation will be observed in the RTC circuit due to seasonal and atmospheric temperature changes. In case of a Global Positioning System (GPS) clock, the time/time stamp is received from the satellite(s) and is highly accurate. This project is based on a low-cost GPS clock using AVR ATmega8A microcontroller (MCU).<br />
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<b>Circuit and working of Low-Cost GPS Clock</b><br />
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Circuit diagram of the simple and low-cost GPS clock is shown in Fig. 1. It is built around ATmega8A (IC1), NEO 6M GPS receiver module (GPS1) along with an antenna, 16×1 LCD (LCD1) and a few other components.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XDAg_DFc5lM/W8_zkI7xrkI/AAAAAAAAKtg/YvoyT0mXCw4lSfzIj0XUFdlQGtdI8UaBQCLcBGAs/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2BGPS%2Bclock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Circuit diagram of GPS clock" border="0" data-original-height="256" data-original-width="500" height="203" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XDAg_DFc5lM/W8_zkI7xrkI/AAAAAAAAKtg/YvoyT0mXCw4lSfzIj0XUFdlQGtdI8UaBQCLcBGAs/s400/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2BGPS%2Bclock.jpg" title="Circuit diagram of GPS clock" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of GPS clock</b></div>
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NEO 6M GPS receiver module receives National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) data continuously and transfers the same to ATmega8A MCU. The MCU processes the data and picks the date stamp from the received data string. The following data format is searched in the received data, which is used to pick the time stamp:<br />
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$GPGGA, 143621, .<br />
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The MCU checks for the keyword $GPGGA and reads the next six characters of the received string and displays it on LCD1. This process repeats in a cyclic process, and the latest time is displayed.<br />
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The time stamp received is always in Universal Time Coordinated (UTC) format, which matches with Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). To convert it to local time, add proper time constant to UTC time, which will depend on the country and city. In the program, the local time constant for Indian time is set to +5:30, but you can modify it to set a different value.<br />
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The local time constant is declared in C program as:<br />
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int ADJ[2] = {5,30};<br />
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<b>Initial setup</b><br />
After connecting the circuit, upload GPSclock.hex file to ATmega8A MCU using any AVR programmer through ISP port. Once the program is loaded, blinker LED1 will glow for one second followed by ‘NEO 6M GPS Clock’ message on LCD1. By default, it will display in UTC format.<br />
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To change to local time constant, press any switch (S2 or S3) to display the existing value. By pressing hours and minutes switch, the local time constant changes. If no switch is pressed for more than four seconds, the value is saved in EEPROM of the MCU.<br />
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The GPS module will initialise and try to connect to the satellite for data reception. This may take some time, say, three to five minutes. LCD1 will display “Connecting..” till the data is received from the satellite. Once the data is received, the time will be displayed on LCD1 in HH:MM:SS format continuously. In case GPS module is not connected, or is giving a connection error, ‘NO GPS MODULE’ message will be displayed on LCD1.<br />
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Use shorting jumpers SJ1 for 12/24-hour format and SJ2 for local/UTC time to be displayed. LED1 will indicate that the MCU is processing the received data. Potmeter VR1 is used for adjusting the contrast for LCD1.<br />
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<b>Construction and testing</b><br />
An actual-size PCB layout of low-cost GPS clock circuit is shown in Fig. 2 and its components layout is shown in Fig. 3.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-39lyogCsiFg/W8_0vK9pzUI/AAAAAAAAKtw/_rlL6__pHnADpG9AYoLiF4CdNhrK5yj2ACLcBGAs/s1600/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2BGPS%2Bclock.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="266" data-original-width="500" height="170" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-39lyogCsiFg/W8_0vK9pzUI/AAAAAAAAKtw/_rlL6__pHnADpG9AYoLiF4CdNhrK5yj2ACLcBGAs/s320/PCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2BGPS%2Bclock.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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Fig. 2: PCB layout of GPS clock</div>
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Fig. 3: Components layout for the PCB</div>
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Assemble the circuit on the PCB and connect 5V across CON1 to operate the circuit. Enclose the circuit in a suitable box and connect GPS1 across CON2. Connect the antenna to GPS1. Place the unit at a suitable location along with LCD1. Jumpers J1 and J2 shown in the PCB can be any conductor wires. Connect these before switching on the circuit.<br />
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<b>Jumper setting</b><br />
Connect SJ1 in 12-hour format, otherwise it will be set in 24-hour format by default. Connect SJ2 for UTC time, otherwise it will be set in local time (UTC+5.30).<br />
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For example, the time stamp received by the GPS module is 14:15:16, which is in UTC time in 24-hour format by default. Now, LCD1 will display the time as per the settings for SJ1 and SJ2, as shown in the table, assuming the local time constant as +05:30:00.<br />
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To change the local time, press minutes and hours switches (S2 and S3, respectively) during initialisation of the system when NEO 6M GPS message appears on LCD1. Change local time constant only once.<br />
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Sourced: EFU Author : Fayaz Hassan</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-58504434095762332602018-10-23T05:17:00.001-07:002018-10-23T05:17:48.524-07:00Two Channel RC Car ReceiverSomeone anonymous left me a comment in this post asking that, since I had analyzed the transmitter, I also described the receiver. The comment I deleted, for the lack of care of its editor, but the request seemed right. A typical receiver of a cheap car made in China does not have much crumb. This I present is one that cost me between 3 and 4 euros (for those who are more familiar, about 4.5 USD).<br />
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<b>Current Radio Control circuits</b><br />
<br />
There are three types of low-end radio controlled cars. Of course they do not have to be cars, the external form can be any. What matters is the circuit. Of course we talk about radio control at 27MHz, there are other controls that work with infrared but I will not talk about that.<br />
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As I say, in RC models today we find only three types of circuits. Because the manufacturers are the same and barely change the schemes. The scheme depends on the channels that the car has. Channels are the independent actions you can perform.<br />
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Diagram of a channel: These are the most basic and only have a button on the remote. They are the typical ones that nothing else turn them on the car goes forward. When we press the button it goes backwards and at the same time it rotates, to continue advancing as soon as we release the button. The circuit is very simple: a transmitter in the control and a receiver tuned in the car. As soon as the receiver picks up the command signal, it switches the address. Often the signal is not even modulated.<br />
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Scheme of two channels: These have three states: forward, backward and stopped. They have two push buttons, one for forward and one for backward that can be independent or joined in a lever. The transmitter is an oscillator that can emit two tones of different frequencies (250Hz and 1000Hz), we already described the operation in this input. As for the receiver, the scheme is usually based on the integrated RX-3 from Silan. That is going to be the one we describe today.<br />
<br />
Scheme of five channels: They are the cars with functions of back-forward-turbo and left-right. In this case it is no longer comfortable to use different frequencies for each option, so digital modulation is used. Both the transmitter and the receiver use dedicated integrated. The TX-2B and the RX-2B respectively. We are not going to talk about them today<br />
<br />
Of course there are many more schemes. But these and their variants are the most common you will find in the bazaars. For the mid-range and modeling, especially in airplanes, other not so simple circuits are already used.<br />
<br />
<b>Two-channel receiver</b><br />
<br />
This is the receiver of an RC car with two channels: forward / backward and stopped in the absence of signal. First let's look at the plate to get an idea:<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-40cAzereqjg/W88QeZ92erI/AAAAAAAAKtA/J9-v2QiOkzQE0SYjbN0sqHpIbCSagX-DwCLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" border="0" data-original-height="256" data-original-width="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-40cAzereqjg/W88QeZ92erI/AAAAAAAAKtA/J9-v2QiOkzQE0SYjbN0sqHpIbCSagX-DwCLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B1.JPG" title="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xHRhFcBg5jY/W88QeljKJMI/AAAAAAAAKtE/M-gq9OoHLP8zcU3E4T1zx-Bca85yGB33gCLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" border="0" data-original-height="276" data-original-width="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xHRhFcBg5jY/W88QeljKJMI/AAAAAAAAKtE/M-gq9OoHLP8zcU3E4T1zx-Bca85yGB33gCLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B2.JPG" title="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" /></a></div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LFwZxO1q6HY/W88QegyiNQI/AAAAAAAAKtI/RX6XENbrZUAe-vogEo6dE3XmkY1MAKEEACLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" border="0" data-original-height="287" data-original-width="320" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-LFwZxO1q6HY/W88QegyiNQI/AAAAAAAAKtI/RX6XENbrZUAe-vogEo6dE3XmkY1MAKEEACLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B3.JPG" title="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" /></a></div>
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<br />
We could reproduce the circuit from the tracks, as we did with the transmitter. But it is very boring, in addition in the datasheet of the RX-3 comes a scheme proposed by the integrated manufacturer. It is to be hoped that ours does not deviate too much and in fact it is very similar, deleting some components to save costs.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-l1pRezUscHE/W88QqyZMZMI/AAAAAAAAKtM/C4IYNARH3WE2sXLY4AYCtc10nD8Y5otTwCLcBGAs/s1600/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B4.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" border="0" data-original-height="645" data-original-width="1329" height="193" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-l1pRezUscHE/W88QqyZMZMI/AAAAAAAAKtM/C4IYNARH3WE2sXLY4AYCtc10nD8Y5otTwCLcBGAs/s400/Current%2BRadio%2BControl%2Bcircuits%2B4.png" title="Two Channel RC Car Receiver" width="400" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
I have colored some sections so you can see them better (click to enlarge). Let's see how it works.<br />
<br />
<b>Section A: Radio frequency stage.</b><br />
<br />
It seems that it is a regenerative receptor. The feedback is done through the 5.6kΩ resistance. These circuits apply positive feedback almost to the point of oscillating with the input signal. For how simple they are, they have very good sensitivity and selectivity characteristics. They have known each other since the earliest days of radio. The first patent is from 1914, with valves, of course.<br />
<br />
The transmission reaches the antenna, passes through the tuned tank circuit and is amplified with the transistor. One of the diodes of the transistor also acts as an AM detector. Detecting and re-amplifying the tone with which the carrier is modulated. This type of design was used much earlier, when the cost of the transistors was very high. And that cost less than valves. The first transistor radios that came out proudly announced 6 transistors. Today the remote control that we analyze has 7, and the computer with which I write and read has several millions of miniature transistors inside.<br />
<br />
The extracted audio tone goes to section B to be amplified<br />
<br />
<b>Section B: Audio amplification.</b><br />
<br />
The integrated RX-3 incorporates two inverting amplifiers ready to use. The outer pins connect with what would be the equivalent of the inverter inputs.<br />
<br />
The resistors and capacitors that make up this section are the feedback networks of both amplifiers. The first of them has an amplification of about 30dB which is greatly reduced for high frequencies by the effect of the 500pF capacitor in parallel with the resistance.<br />
<br />
The second stage is configured with a gain of 10dB. All this grossly without counting the losses by the coupling capacitors, in series with the input resistors, which separate the direct current and only let the alternating current pass through.<br />
<br />
The entire amplifier stage has a gain of 40dB. The detected tone is applied to pin 4 of the integrated. This is the demodulated signal input. When a 1000Hz tone arrives at this pin, pin 11 will be set high -forward- and the car will move forward. On the other hand when a tone of 250Hz arrives, the pin 9 -backward- will turn on and roll backwards<br />
<br />
<b>Section C: Bridge H.</b><br />
<br />
When we apply tension to an engine it turns in a certain direction. If what we want is that we rotate one way or another at will we have to use a special arrangement of transistors to feed it. This circuit is called bridge H.<br />
<br />
When the integrated applies voltage to the pin 11 -speed- the transistor Q9 goes to conduction. With it as a cascade reaction they also switch Q11 and Q13, grounding the left terminal of the motor and supplying positive voltage to the right one. And the engine will turn in one direction.<br />
<br />
On the other hand, when pin 8 is activated -return- transistor Q8 is activated which in turn activates Q12 and Q10. Under these conditions, the left terminal of the motor would receive positive voltage while the right terminal is connected to ground. Just the reverse of the previous situation, and the engine will turn in the opposite direction.<br />
<br />
There are variants of this scheme. In the scheme there are 5 NPN and 1 PNP transistors. However on the plate we have there are 4 NPN and 2 PNP. There are multiple possibilities but the idea is the same.<br />
<br />
<b>Section D: Food.</b><br />
<br />
Finally, section D is the circuit power. There is not much to emphasize here. There are components that are missing in the commercial plate, for example the diode D1, which prevents against inversion of the batteries, they have saved it. As well as some filtering capacitors.<br />
<br />
We see that the part that feeds the stage A is decoupled by a resistance of 100Ω and a capacitor. It serves so that no residual RF signal can leak into the power line and interfere with the integrated one.<br />
<br />
In some circuits this part is not well designed, and the RF is coupled with the power supply, it can also pass through the parasitic capabilities between the tracks for example. In many cases of erratic behavior, especially with micro controllers this is the problemsaifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-50401987274361457452018-08-01T06:58:00.000-07:002018-08-01T06:58:57.238-07:00A Doorbell for the Deaf <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>This circuit provides a delayed visual indication when a door bell switch is pressed. In addition, a DPDT switch can be moved from within the house which will light a lamp in the door bell switch. The lamp can illuminate the words "Please Wait" for anyone with walking difficulties. </b><br />
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<br />
<b>A Doorbell for the Deaf Circuit Diagram :</b><br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hVxI9f4knZw/W2G8fb-QjaI/AAAAAAAAKs0/7DH64mOrrCAM0iHeLpzbsDEdM89MkXAHgCLcBGAs/s1600/A%2BDoorbell%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BDeaf%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.gif" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="A Doorbell for the Deaf Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="390" data-original-width="908" height="171" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hVxI9f4knZw/W2G8fb-QjaI/AAAAAAAAKs0/7DH64mOrrCAM0iHeLpzbsDEdM89MkXAHgCLcBGAs/s400/A%2BDoorbell%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BDeaf%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.gif" title="A Doorbell for the Deaf Circuit Diagram" width="400" /></a></div>
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<br />
<br />
<b>Notes :</b><br />
The circuit uses standard 2 wire doorbell cable or loudspeaker wire. In parallel with the doorbell switch, S1, is a 1N4001 diode and a 12 volt 60mA bulb. The bulb is optional, it may be useful for anyone who is slow to answer the door, all you need to do is flick a switch inside the house, and the bulb will illuminate a label saying Please Wait inside the doorbell switch or close to it. The double pole double throw switch sends the doorbell supply to the lamp, the 22 ohm resistor is there to reduce current flow, should the doorbell switch, S1 be pressed while the lamp is on. The resistor needs to be rated 10 watts, the 0.5 Amp fuse protects against short circuits.<br />
<br />
When S2 is in the up position (shown as brown contacts), this will illuminate the remote doorbell lamp. When down, (blue contacts) this is the normal position and will illuminate the lamp inside the house. Switch S1 will then charge the 47u capacitor and operate the transistor which lights the lamp. As a door bell switch is only pressed momentarily, then the charge on the capacitor decays slowly, resulting in the lamp being left on for several seconds. If a longer period is needed then the capacitor may be increased in value. </div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-55286326383149245992018-08-01T06:53:00.000-07:002018-08-01T06:53:00.025-07:00Voltage Inverter using IC NE 555<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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In many circuits we need to generate an internal adjustable voltage.
This circuit shows how it is possible to use a trusty old NE555 timer IC
and a bit of external circuitry to create a voltage inverter and
doubler. The input voltage to be doubled is fed in at connector K1. To
generate the stepped-up output at connector K2 the timer IC drives a
two-stage inverting charge pump circuit. </div>
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<br />
The NE555 is configured
as an astable multivibrator and produces a rectangular wave at its
output, with variable mark-space ratio and variable frequency. This
results in timing capacitor C3 (see circuit diagram) being alternately
charged and discharged; the voltage at pin 2 (THR) of the NE555 swings
between one-third of the supply voltage and two-thirds of the supply
voltage.</div>
<br />
<b>Voltage Inverter Circuit Using IC NE555 </b><br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-dX8XbuKgYno/W2G7CsGwzkI/AAAAAAAAKso/do2rLjsW8JoJDHCdF2cX9CewkchJd74jACLcBGAs/s1600/Voltage%2BInverter%2Busing%2BIC%2BNE%2B555%2B1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Voltage Inverter using IC NE 555" border="0" data-original-height="163" data-original-width="310" height="210" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-dX8XbuKgYno/W2G7CsGwzkI/AAAAAAAAKso/do2rLjsW8JoJDHCdF2cX9CewkchJd74jACLcBGAs/s400/Voltage%2BInverter%2Busing%2BIC%2BNE%2B555%2B1.png" title="Voltage Inverter using IC NE 555" width="400" /></a></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
The output of the NE555 is connected to two voltage inverters. The
first inverter comprises C1, C2, D1 and D2. These components convert the
rectangular wave signal into a nega-tive DC level at the upper pin of
K2. The second inverter, comprising C4, C5, D3 and D4, is also driven
from the output of IC1, but uses the negative output voltage present on
diode D3 as its reference potential. The consequence is that at the
lower pin of output connector K2 we obtain a negative volt-age double
that on the upper pin.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Now let us look at the voltage feedback arrangement, which lets us
adjust this doubled negative output voltage down to the level we want.
The NE555 has a control voltage input on pin 5 (CV). Normally the
voltage level on this pin is maintained at two-thirds of the supply
voltage by internal circuitry. The voltage provides a reference for one
of the comparators inside the device. If the reference voltage on the CV
pin is raised towards the supply voltage by an external circuit, the
timing capacitor C3 in the astable multivibrator will take longer to
charge and to discharge. As a result the frequency of the rectangle wave
output from IC1 will fall, and its mark-space ratio will also fall.</div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
The
source for the CV reference voltage in this circuit is the base-emitter
junction of PNP transistor T1. If the base volt-age of T1 is
approximately 500 mV lower than its emitter voltage, T1 will start to
conduct and thus pull the voltage on the CV pin towards the positive
supply.<br />
<br />
In the feedback path NPN transistor T2 has the function
of a voltage level shifter, being wired in common-base configuration.
The threshold is set by the resistance of the feedback chain comprising
resistor R3 and potentiometer P1. When the emitter voltage of transistor
T2 is more than approximately 500 mV lower than its base voltage it
will start to conduct. Its collector then acts as a current sink.
Potentiometer P1 can be used to adjust the sensitivity of the negative
feedback circuit and hence the final output voltage level.Using T1 as a
voltage reference means that the circuit will adjust itself to
compensate not only for changes in load at K2, but also for changes in
the input supply voltage. If K2 is disconnected from the load the
desired output voltage will be maintained, with the oscillation
frequency falling to around 150 Hz.<br />
<br />
A particular feature of this
circuit is the somewhat unconventional way that the NE555’s discharge
pin (pin 7) is connected to its output (pin 3). To understand how this
trick works we need to inspect the innards of the IC. Both pins are
outputs, driven by internal transistors with bases both connected (via
separate base resistors) to the emitter of a further transistor. The
collectors of the output transistors are thus isolated from one another
[1].<br />
<br />
The external wiring connecting pins 3 and 7 together means
that the two transistors are operating in parallel: this roughly doubles
the current that can be switched to ground.The two oscilloscope traces
show how the output voltage behaves under different circumstances. The
left-hand figure shows the behaviour of the circuit with an input
voltage of 9 V and a resistive load of 470 Ω connected to the lower pin
of output connector K2. The figure on the right shows the situation with
an input voltage of 10 V and a load of 1 kΩ on the lower pin of output
connector K2. The pulse width and frequency of the rectangle wave at the
output of IC1 are automatically adjusted to compensate for the
differing conditions by the feedback mechanism built around T1 and T2.<br />
<br />
Because
of the voltage drops across the Darlington out-put stage in the IC (2.5
V maximum) and the four diodes (700 mV each) the circuit achieves an
efficiency at full load (470 Ω between the output and ground) of
approximately 50 %; at lower loads (1 kΩ) the efficiency is about 65 %.</div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
Author : Peter Krueger - Copyright : Elektor</div>
</div>
</div>
</div>
saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-39933244539579775862018-06-27T07:10:00.000-07:002018-06-27T07:10:14.193-07:00Simple Little Nightlight Circuit Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Here we describe a very simple, economical and light-weight automatic nightlight that runs on 230V AC mains and can be used as a deluxe gizmo in the sleeping room of your kids. The arrangement proposed by the author is shown in Fig. 1.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fO6XJe1GvNE/WzOZTBp0F7I/AAAAAAAAKro/dYXi9S-vxJMf9QEdTS64zJxRgdzzCCfPgCLcBGAs/s1600/1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="375" data-original-width="500" height="240" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-fO6XJe1GvNE/WzOZTBp0F7I/AAAAAAAAKro/dYXi9S-vxJMf9QEdTS64zJxRgdzzCCfPgCLcBGAs/s320/1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br />
Circuit diagram for the nightlight is shown in Fig. 2. It is built around three resistors (R1 through R3), two light-emitting diodes (LED1 and LED2), a light-dependent resistor (LDR1), a BC548 transistor (T1) and a capacitor (C1). Here LED1 is blue and LED2 is RGB with rainbow effect.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eT_IYPjDctA/WzOZgP_doTI/AAAAAAAAKrs/tf8-OtGC6uQIyyRTqKBfgxKfAYPa2MDiQCLcBGAs/s1600/2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt=" Little Nightlight Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="398" data-original-width="500" height="254" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-eT_IYPjDctA/WzOZgP_doTI/AAAAAAAAKrs/tf8-OtGC6uQIyyRTqKBfgxKfAYPa2MDiQCLcBGAs/s320/2.jpg" title=" Little Nightlight Circuit Diagram" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b> Little Nightlight Circuit Diagram</b></div>
<br />
The circuit operates off 230V AC, consuming very little current. The generic 5mm LDR drives the rainbow LED (LED2) through npn transistor T1. Series resistor R3 (150-ohm) limits the current through LED2. The sensor circuit ensures that the rainbow light switches on when it gets dark and off when there is ambient light. If desired, you can change its detection threshold by varying the value of 47-kilo-ohm resistor R2.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-a1GOBRT_EHU/WzOZmG5j3SI/AAAAAAAAKr0/4btWsi0eVAMixtI-xqSgXQ_crvGIN4EEwCLcBGAs/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="394" height="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-a1GOBRT_EHU/WzOZmG5j3SI/AAAAAAAAKr0/4btWsi0eVAMixtI-xqSgXQ_crvGIN4EEwCLcBGAs/s320/3.jpg" width="300" /></a></div>
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<br />
Resistor R1 (100-kilo-ohm), 1N4007 diode D1, and 4.7µF, 16V electrolytic capacitor C1 are used to down-convert the 230V AC input supply to a very low-value DC supply. The 5mm blue LED (LED1) not only works as an always-on pilot lamp but also keeps the voltage across buffer capacitor C1 close to around 3V. When the circuit is in active state (that is, in darkness), LED1 also produces a waving effect in tune with the current consumption of the entire circuitry.<br />
<br />
The rainbow LED is a low-cost flashing LED with inbuilt driver chip. When power is applied, it flashes red, blue and green colours each for several seconds, then it slowly mixes these colours together to form other colours. Fig. 3 shows the author’s lab experiments.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HOGcnEFHVGo/WzOZ0GALXYI/AAAAAAAAKr8/GG2_fd9-mf8HOgCosb_eUA9k-Des6YzRACLcBGAs/s1600/3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="180" data-original-width="1024" height="56" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-HOGcnEFHVGo/WzOZ0GALXYI/AAAAAAAAKr8/GG2_fd9-mf8HOgCosb_eUA9k-Des6YzRACLcBGAs/s320/3.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<b><br /></b>
<b>Construction and testing</b><br />
<br />
An actual-size PCB layout for the little nightlight is shown in Fig. 4 and its components layout in Fig. 5. After assembling the circuit, enclose it in a suitable box.<br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-w-7hcva_pRI/WzOZ8qK7ErI/AAAAAAAAKsE/JjWRYqpPoBwrb7R0HkYcYw8gG5xVhGYEwCLcBGAs/s1600/4.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="PCB layout of little nightlight" border="0" data-original-height="245" data-original-width="500" height="156" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-w-7hcva_pRI/WzOZ8qK7ErI/AAAAAAAAKsE/JjWRYqpPoBwrb7R0HkYcYw8gG5xVhGYEwCLcBGAs/s320/4.jpg" title="PCB layout of little nightlight" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>PCB layout of little nightlight</b></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-NchDgERGdqo/WzOaBeaIc8I/AAAAAAAAKsI/bWNYsDt28ugB6QQ0We6SXCWUTp2t48MSgCLcBGAs/s1600/5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Components side of the PCB" border="0" data-original-height="245" data-original-width="500" height="156" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-NchDgERGdqo/WzOaBeaIc8I/AAAAAAAAKsI/bWNYsDt28ugB6QQ0We6SXCWUTp2t48MSgCLcBGAs/s320/5.jpg" title="Components side of the PCB" width="320" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b>Components side of the PCB</b></div>
<br />
Construction and testing<br />
<br />
An actual-size PCB layout for the little nightlight is shown in Fig. 4 and its components layout in Fig. 5. After assembling the circuit, enclose it in a suitable box.<br />
<br />
Fix CON1 so that you can connect 230V AC easily. Connect LDR1 such that light from LED1 and LED2 doesn’t fall on it. After proper assembly and connections, your little nightlight circuit is ready to use. Proposed enclosure is shown in Fig. 6.<br />
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-35188260966206040602018-06-24T02:57:00.003-07:002018-06-24T02:57:15.886-07:00DC / AC Voltage Inverter 12v for 110 - 220V Circuit Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>This is the DC / AC Voltage Inverter 12v for 110 - 220V Simple and Powerful. Here is from a voltage inverter 12 Volts DC to 110 or 220 Volts AC. It is capable of generating a 50 or 60 Hz AC voltage (AC) with a square wave, which can feed most electronic equipment in a home.</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Equipment with some types of motors will not work well with this voltage inverter and may even be damaged, so use it only on equipment that does not require AC power or that is not as sensitive to the type of wave.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<b>Voltage Inverter</b></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
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This circuit is very simple, uses less than 12 component to build a DC to AC voltage inverter.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8BUGxQ26Nww/Wy9qR9EqSfI/AAAAAAAAKrA/h39vfNd5dzEMoeoLdQ2B3fgjih-_sHg5wCLcBGAs/s1600/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="DC / AC Voltage Inverter 12v for 110 - 220V Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="423" data-original-width="750" height="225" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8BUGxQ26Nww/Wy9qR9EqSfI/AAAAAAAAKrA/h39vfNd5dzEMoeoLdQ2B3fgjih-_sHg5wCLcBGAs/s400/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B1.png" title="DC / AC Voltage Inverter 12v for 110 - 220V Circuit Diagram" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b> DC / AC Voltage Inverter 12v for 110 - 220V Circuit Diagram</b></div>
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The principle of this circuit is to generate a frequency between 50 and 60Hz through the integrated circuit CD 4074, this signal coming from pins 10 and 11, which are in opposite phases of 180º, these 50 Hertz pulses are taken to the IRFZ MOSFET transistors 44 that amplify these pulses giving them more current, after amplifying the pulse it is taken to the transformer generating high voltage in the secondary of 220Volts or 110 Volts AC depending on the used transformer.</div>
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The output waveform of the inverter is square and is improved almost to a "modified" wave with a Cn filter of 220nF, in my opinion the output is a square wave cropped, well away from being a sine wave.</div>
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The integrated circuit used. the CD4047 is a TTL integrated circuit that operates both in monostable mode and in steady mode. Below the CD4047 pinout.</div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2Nyht0HM3KI/Wy9qk6zxFQI/AAAAAAAAKrM/Tvw6jFrRCE0-E-tMCkT-NdBvighZCOzkQCLcBGAs/s1600/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="260" data-original-width="302" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-2Nyht0HM3KI/Wy9qk6zxFQI/AAAAAAAAKrM/Tvw6jFrRCE0-E-tMCkT-NdBvighZCOzkQCLcBGAs/s1600/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B2.jpg" /></a></div>
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The oscillator components of the CD4047, R1 / C1, are a capacitor (between pins 1 and 3) and a resistor (between pins 2 and 3), they will determine the output pulse width in monostable mode, and the output frequency in astable mode.</div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bJv2Cc18mgM/Wy9qq9gUOwI/AAAAAAAAKrQ/3qBWlZiMRdIIiyO8F_4p6435sXqynexUwCLcBGAs/s1600/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B3.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="198" data-original-width="256" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bJv2Cc18mgM/Wy9qq9gUOwI/AAAAAAAAKrQ/3qBWlZiMRdIIiyO8F_4p6435sXqynexUwCLcBGAs/s1600/DC%2B%2BAC%2BVoltage%2BInverter%2B12v%2Bfor%2B110%2B%2B220V%2B3.jpg" /></a></div>
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To increase the output current (power) a high current battery, more MOSFETS transistors in parallel and a compatible transformer should be used. For example, to obtain 240W output the battery used is at least 20A.</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-49350370145486295042018-04-22T05:29:00.002-07:002018-04-22T05:29:38.518-07:00Simple 100W HiFi Audio Amplifier Circuit Diagram<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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This Amplifier was designed to have the following specifications: Distortion less than 0.1% at full power of 100W even at 20KHz. Power has to be attributed to an extended bandwidth. The output transistors must be protected against short circuits. The power supply must be symmetrical so that no electrolytic capacitors are needed at the outlet. Enhancer materials must be common and accessible to everyone. Construction and adjustment must be simple. The amplifier must be economical and efficient. The whole circuit is based on two Darlington output transistors that with the help of the input circuits give almost perfect results.</div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vgwwy_hmKXM/Wtx9rEWlmlI/AAAAAAAAKqY/VtokXh7oEUktGTYpY3TshU_7eEXqwEgzgCLcBGAs/s1600/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Simple 100W HiFi Audio Amplifier Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="1055" data-original-width="1600" height="263" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vgwwy_hmKXM/Wtx9rEWlmlI/AAAAAAAAKqY/VtokXh7oEUktGTYpY3TshU_7eEXqwEgzgCLcBGAs/s400/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" title="Simple 100W HiFi Audio Amplifier Circuit Diagram" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b>Technical specifications</b></div>
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Output power: 100W (RL = 4Ω, K = 0.1%) or 70W (RL = 8Ω, K = 0.1%) (continuous sinusoidal signal)</div>
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Power in relation to frequency: <10Hz-100KHz at 100W</div>
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Distortion: 0.1% at 20Hz-20KHz at 100W</div>
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Intrinsulation: 0.28% measured at 40Hz and 10KHz at a 4: 1 ratio and Pa = 100W</div>
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Signal/Noise (SIN): 70 dB</div>
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Input sensitivity: 0.775V</div>
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Input resistance: 100KΩ</div>
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Output resistance: 0.052 Ω (in 1KHz)</div>
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Minimum load: 4Ω</div>
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Power supply: 80V symmetrical (+ 40V, 0, -40V)</div>
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Current consumption: 2.5A max at RL = 4Ω</div>
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Peak current: 50mA</div>
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<b>The circuit</b></div>
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The input stage, is a differential amplifier with main elements the transistors T1 and T2. Then we have a lead step with T4 whose collector is connected to the T3 emitter. This works like an adjustable Zener diode and regulates the resting current. The final step follows with two completely complementary transistors T7 and T8 (Darlington).</div>
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An advantage of the symmetrical voltage, is that the electrolytic capacitor is avoided at the circuit.</div>
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The amplifier has a fairly high input resistance that exceeds 100KΩ since before C4 we have R2, and since the input resistance of T1 is too high.</div>
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Negative feedback (both for DC and for AC) we have with resistance R6. The DC negative feedback section produces almost zero potential at the output. The feedback section AC determines the amplification and is dependent on R6, C4 and R3. The amplification is determined by the formula:</div>
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Uo/Ui = (R3 + R6)/R3 = 3420/120 = 28.5</div>
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The stage with T4 leads the T7 and T8, but because they are darlington they need very little base current, so for T4 we do not need a heatsink.</div>
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Transistor T3 together with resistors R18 and R19 stabilizes the output current of the output transistors. The voltage drop on R18 and R19 is determined by the position of P1 because it controls the collector voltage from the T3 transmitter. R11 in conjunction with C5 capacitor increases the AC boost of the drive.</div>
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The heart of the output stage is the Darlington transistors BDX66 and BDX67. At 25°C this series has the following characteristics:</div>
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• Collector collector voltage: 100V</div>
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• Max Collector Current: 16A</div>
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• Maximum power absorbed: 150W</div>
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If the collector current becomes 10A then the collector voltage from the transmitter becomes 2V and the amplification at DC is about 1000. When the collector current is 5A then the voltage is between 0.4V and 0.5V and the amplification is about 4000.</div>
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With these characteristics these transistors are ideal for such circuits. Regardless of how "good" the transistors are, they need protection from short circuits.</div>
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The voltage drop on the collector resistors R18 and R19 gives us the magnitude of the collector current through the transmitter. If the current passing through the resistors R18 and R19 passes a certain limit, then they will start to drive the transistors T5 and T6 since the voltage on the dividers R16, R14 and R15, R17 parallel to R18 and R19. Thus the currents passing through the diodes D2 and D3 will reduce the base currents of T7 and T6, which will also reduce the collector currents.</div>
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The various other elements R and C serve different purposes. C1 limits the input bandwidth. This avoids a portion of noise. C3 is responsible for 3dB at 100KHz, that is to say, it is inclined to the characteristic of the frequency response. C6, C7 and C8 are Miller capacities. C9 and R20 stabilize the output. The C10 / R21, C12, C11 / R22 and C13 cut off the various peaks at the RF frequencies coming from the power supply.</div>
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Technical specifications</div>
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The circuit has no difficulty and its construction is relatively easy. With some luck, the amplifier can give 120W of power at 4Ω, but unfortunately the deformation reaches about 1%. But at 100W (again at 4Ω) the deformation is less than 0.1%.</div>
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From the following figure we see that the deformation remains constant and is less than 0.1% at frequencies from 40Hz to 20KHz. For full performance the input must be greater than 0.775V. This level is given by almost all preamplifiers. If a higher output device is used then a 10KΩ potentiometer must be fitted at the input of the amplifier.</div>
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6rqQNFNZrf4/Wtx-tgN4Q8I/AAAAAAAAKqg/B4D9TauDkKg8UKmKtct33ili2x0XLhqXwCLcBGAs/s1600/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram%2B1.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="647" data-original-width="700" height="295" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6rqQNFNZrf4/Wtx-tgN4Q8I/AAAAAAAAKqg/B4D9TauDkKg8UKmKtct33ili2x0XLhqXwCLcBGAs/s320/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram%2B1.png" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>The power supply</b></div>
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It is known that the performance of the amplifier depends on the quality of the power supply. The amplifier needs a symmetrical voltage of ± 40V. At full power (100W at 4Ω) the current is 2.5A and at load 8Ω with power 70W the current is 1.1A. For economy and simplicity, we use a non-stabilized power supply. By its nature, however, such a power supply will have a fluctuation in voltage.</div>
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If the power supply at full power output is 40V it means that with less power the supply voltage will tend to increase. However, since the output elements have a maximum operating voltage of 100V, which means ± 50V, the design should be done so that these limits are not exceeded. For this reason, we define the power supply voltage to ± 46V so that we also have a safety margin. However, the ± 46V only leaves a margin of 6V between maximum and minimum load. However, this means that the internal resistance of the power supply must be very small. A good way to get a little resistance is to use a good transformer.</div>
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Given the good transformer, a bridge-rectifying bridge and some electrolytic capacitors and we have the power supply we need. The fuses on each power line are used to protect the circuit from short circuits, because the T7 and T8 protection circuits are only short-lived until the fuses are blown. For stereo performance we need two amplifiers and therefore two power supplies.</div>
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<b>Construction</b></div>
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Resistors R18 and R19 must have a PCB spacing of at least 5mm. This generates a good bleed and hence good heat dissipation. Transistors T7 and T8 as well as capacitors C7 and C8 are mounted on the heatsink.</div>
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The heatsink must be 1.2 ° C / W. If a heat-conducting paste is applied on both sides, then a heatsink with 1.8 ° C / W is sufficient. It is known that if more than one transistor is placed on a heatsink then we have to divide the thermal resistance of the heatsink with the number of transistors. Therefore, if both transistors (T7 and T8) are placed on a heatsink, then the type should be 0.6 ° C / W or 0.9 ° C / W.</div>
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In no case should there be direct contact of the transistor with the heatsink, because the collector is connected to the transistor cover and thus would cause short circuits. For this reason, insulators such as, for example, Mica.</div>
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Before connecting the capacitors C7 and C8 (see Fig. 4), insulate their terminals by placing eg. Plastic macaroni.</div>
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The connections to the printed circuit must be made with the shortest possible copper wire.</div>
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The input jack must be connected to an AF cable in the printed circuit (coaxial cable should be grounded). The best way to connect the ground to the amp printed box is to ground the input jack. The cable and the plug must be positioned as far as possible from the other components and cables to reduce the possibility of back-up and noise from the 220V network.</div>
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The two windings of the secondary are completely separate. That means four wires will remain in our hands. To see where we connect each one we get two in luck and unite them. Then we measure the voltage in the other two. If the voltage between them is 60V AC, then connect the two wires together with the earth of the power supply and the other two in the remaining free points. If the voltage is 0V, then we need to change one of the edges we've joined with a free one. Electrolytic capacitors must be attached (due to size) to the PCB with a plastic collar or the like.</div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-X_SMS2bpLlo/Wtx-6PZMN-I/AAAAAAAAKqk/aU2SeMTyuYo3_pYlsLmXokY8Y6EpAQVaACLcBGAs/s1600/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram%2B2.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="571" data-original-width="1015" height="225" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-X_SMS2bpLlo/Wtx-6PZMN-I/AAAAAAAAKqk/aU2SeMTyuYo3_pYlsLmXokY8Y6EpAQVaACLcBGAs/s400/Simple%2B100W%2BHiFi%2BAudio%2BAmplifier%2BCircuit%2BDiagram%2B2.png" width="400" /></a></div>
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<b>Adjusting the amplifier</b></div>
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Remove F2 from the power supply after short-circuiting the input and making sure the output is not connected to anything else. Then put a multimeter in the 1A DC region at the ends of the fuse block, and with the (+) in its side with C2.</div>
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Turn the potentiometer to its end in a direction opposite to the clock. Check all connections and connect the power adapter to the network. The multimeter should point around 0A. If the reading is greater then an error must be present and you must immediately stop the power supply. In good condition the current should be about 100mA which with P1 must be set to 80mA. This means that the resting current in the power transistors will be about 50mA.</div>
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This is the whole process of adjusting the amplifier. We replace F2 fuse, after first shutting down the power supply. If an error has occurred, we can easily correct it by comparing the voltages at different points in the circuit. These voltages have been measured with the speaker connected and the input disconnected.</div>
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<b>List of amplifier components</b></div>
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Resistors:</div>
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R1 = 120k | R2,R5,R6 = 3k3 | R3 = 120Ω | R4,R8 = 680Ω | R7 = 1k5 | R9 = 5k6 | Α10 = 1k2 | R11 = 2k7 | R12,R13 = 270Ω | R14,R15 = 15Ω | R16,R17 = 220Ω | R18,R19 = 1Ω/9W | R20 = 10Ω | R21,R22 = 1Ω | Ρ1 = 1k</div>
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Capacitors:</div>
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C1 = 470 pF | C2 = 10μF/63V | C3 = 150pF | C4 = 1000μ/4V | C5 = 220μ/40V | C6 = 47pF | C7,C8 = 560pF | C9 = 47nF | C10,C11 = 680nF | C12,C13 = 100nF</div>
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<b>Semiconductors:</b></div>
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Τ1,Τ2 = BC556Α | Τ3,Τ5 = BC547B | Τ4 = BC639 | Τ6 = BC557B | Τ7 = BDX67B,BDX67C | Τ8 = BDX66B,BDX66C | D1 = 9V1/1.3W | D2,D3 = 1Ν4148,1Ν914,BAW62</div>
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<b>Other:</b></div>
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2 heatsinks 1.2 ° C / W or 1.8 ° C / W (see text) | Insulators for power transistors (mica)</div>
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List of power supply components</div>
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Resistors:</div>
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R1, R2 = 3k3 / 1W</div>
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Capacitors:</div>
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C1 = 100nF | C2, C3 = 4700μF / 63V</div>
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Semiconductors:</div>
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D1, D2 = LED | B1 = B80C 3200/5000 Rectifier (Bridge)</div>
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Fusses:</div>
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F1 = 1.4A (approx.) | F2, F3 = 2.5A (approximately)</div>
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Other:</div>
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Toroidal transformer = Secondary 2 x 30V - 2x 3,75A | S1 = bipolar switch | Two fuses for PCB | A fuse box for 220V<br />
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Sourced by.Next.gr </div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-47179496730134033502018-01-21T02:40:00.001-08:002018-01-21T02:40:05.459-08:00Arduino Uno Board - DC Motor Starter<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Motor starter reduces the load, torque and current surge of a motor during startup. On starting, the motor takes more than five times the normal running current. This overheats the motor’s armature winding and creates a sudden voltage dip in the power supply, which can be avoided by using a motor starter. There are many types of motor starters. Here we describe an electronic DC motor starter using Arduino Uno board. This circuit controls both soft-start and soft-stop timings through pulse-width modulation (PWM).<br />
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<b>Circuit and working</b><br />
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Circuit diagram of the DC motor soft-starter is shown in Fig. 1. In addition to Arduino Uno board (Board1), it uses PIC817 optocoupler (IC1), p-channel IRF9530 MOSFET (T1), 1N4007 rectifier diode (D1), 12V DC motor (M1) for testing, bi-colour LED (LED1) and a few other components.</div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-g07kGUHHJm4/WmRsovnv5XI/AAAAAAAAKpw/9qmWhtVMv38n0B2W8_GOHYU2tuTqieM2ACLcBGAs/s1600/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2BDC%2Bmotor%2Bstarter%2Busing%2BArduino%2BUno.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Arduino Uno Board - DC Motor Starter" border="0" data-original-height="324" data-original-width="500" height="207" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-g07kGUHHJm4/WmRsovnv5XI/AAAAAAAAKpw/9qmWhtVMv38n0B2W8_GOHYU2tuTqieM2ACLcBGAs/s320/Circuit%2Bdiagram%2Bof%2BDC%2Bmotor%2Bstarter%2Busing%2BArduino%2BUno.jpg" title="Arduino Uno Board - DC Motor Starter" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 1: Circuit diagram of DC motor starter using Arduino Uno</b></div>
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Arduino Uno board is an important part of the circuit that generates PWM signals. Pushbuttons (S1 and S2) are used to soft-start and soft-stop the motor. The bi-colour LED indicates whether the motor is in soft-start or soft-stop mode.<br />
Soft-start<br />
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When the circuit is switched on, the motor is at rest and LED1 off. When push button S1 is pressed momentarily, the voltage across the motor increases gradually and attains maximum voltage after the predetermined soft-start timing. So the motor first starts at a slow speed. In this state, LED1 emits green light. After the soft-start time, i.e., in running condition, LED1 emits orange light, indicating that the motor is running at the rated speed.<br />
Soft-stop<br />
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If pushbutton S2 is pressed momentarily while the motor is running at the rated speed, the voltage across the motor decreases gradually and becomes zero after the soft-stop time. So the motor speed also decreases gradually and it finally stops after the soft-stop time. In this state, LED1 emits red colour. After the soft-stop time, LED1 doesn’t glow, indicating that the motor is at rest.<br />
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Arduino Uno is programmed such that if switch S1 or S2 is pressed more than once before the timing ends, it executes only once. This prevents the motor from restarting suddenly.<br />
The circuit is isolated by an optocoupler (IC1) so that any disturbance in the motor power supply doesn’t affect the Arduino Uno board. The freewheeling diode (D1) gives additional protection over induced voltage when the motor is turned off.<br />
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<a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i8Hd1fkKaUo/WmRs7WDo14I/AAAAAAAAKp0/Tbb4ueri8FQHiRV7av_F33etIaLMQFfLwCLcBGAs/s1600/parts%2Blist.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="420" data-original-width="404" height="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i8Hd1fkKaUo/WmRs7WDo14I/AAAAAAAAKp0/Tbb4ueri8FQHiRV7av_F33etIaLMQFfLwCLcBGAs/s320/parts%2Blist.jpg" width="307" /></a></div>
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The circuit’s operation is controlled using the software program loaded into the internal memory of Arduino Uno board. The program (softs.ino) is written in Arduino programming language sketch. Arduino IDE is used to compile and upload the program to the Arduino board.<br />
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<b>Construction and testing</b><br />
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A PCB layout of the DC motor soft-starter is shown in Fig. 2 and its components layout in Fig. 3. After assembling the circuit on a PCB, connect CON2 to Arduino Uno board through external male-to-male jumper wires. After uploading the code to Board1, enclose the assembled PCB along with Board1 in a suitable plastic box.</div>
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The circuit works off the 5V USB power supply used for Arduino Uno board. Regulated 12V power supply is used to operate the DC motor.<br />
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Up_zafFs19M/WmRtBa6RfyI/AAAAAAAAKp4/2L9ynV1l-dk6HubgTtpzJ-TAgeKCB5K9QCLcBGAs/s1600/2%2BPCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2BDC%2Bmotor%2Bstarter%2Busing%2BArduino%2BUno.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="283" data-original-width="500" height="181" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Up_zafFs19M/WmRtBa6RfyI/AAAAAAAAKp4/2L9ynV1l-dk6HubgTtpzJ-TAgeKCB5K9QCLcBGAs/s320/2%2BPCB%2Blayout%2Bof%2Bthe%2BDC%2Bmotor%2Bstarter%2Busing%2BArduino%2BUno.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 2: PCB layout of the DC motor starter using Arduino Uno</b></div>
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<a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-i6YxgzORdsE/WmRtHlLKP1I/AAAAAAAAKp8/xTateunzwXsstCIUE84CRUl5rNnq6DGGQCLcBGAs/s1600/3%2BComponents%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="276" data-original-width="500" height="176" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-i6YxgzORdsE/WmRtHlLKP1I/AAAAAAAAKp8/xTateunzwXsstCIUE84CRUl5rNnq6DGGQCLcBGAs/s320/3%2BComponents%2Blayout%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BPCB.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<b>Fig. 3: Components layout for the PCB</b></div>
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Download PCB and component layout PDFs: <a href="https://electronicsforu.com/wp-contents/uploads/2017/12/dcmotorsoftstarterarduino.zip" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">click here</a><br />
Further application<br />
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The circuit can be converted into an AC motor soft-starter by using thyristors in place of MOSFET T1. It can be used along with device control projects. Additional protection and closed-loop control can be included, if required. Different timings and PWM values can be set for both soft-start and soft-stop.<br />
Download <a href="http://efymag.com/admin/issuepdf/DC%20motor%20soft%20starter%20using%20Arduino%20Uno%20board.rar" target="_blank">source code</a><br />
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Sourced by: <a href="https://electronicsforu.com/electronics-projects/dc-motor-starter-using-arduino-uno-board" rel="nofollow" target="_blank">EFY</a></div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-80474097501293199532017-09-09T19:58:00.000-07:002017-09-09T19:58:20.368-07:00Simple Solar charger circuit project using transistors<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b>A very simple solar charger circuit project can be
designed using few external electronic parts . This simple solar charger
circuit is capable of handling charge currents of up to 1A. Alternate
component values are given in the figure for lower current applications.</b></div>
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<b>Circuit diagram:</b><br />
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-FcCiMvfNUmk/WbSqHoqMWII/AAAAAAAAKmc/2KBz5D6lYMosDqQFRMCxWtrA5NfUC8dbwCLcBGAs/s1600/Solar%2Bcharger%2Bcircuit%2Bproject%2Busing%2Btransistors%2Bcircuit%2Bdiagram.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="298" data-original-width="320" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-FcCiMvfNUmk/WbSqHoqMWII/AAAAAAAAKmc/2KBz5D6lYMosDqQFRMCxWtrA5NfUC8dbwCLcBGAs/s1600/Solar%2Bcharger%2Bcircuit%2Bproject%2Busing%2Btransistors%2Bcircuit%2Bdiagram.jpg" /></a></div>
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<b> Solar charger circuit project using transistors circuit diagram</b></div>
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only adjustment is the voltage trip point when the current is shunted
through the transistor and load resistor. This should be set with a
fully charged battery. As the transistor and R3 have the entire panel’s
output across them when the battery is fully charged, all of the current
from the panel will be going through R3 and the Darlington transistor
TIP112, so these must be well heat sunk. Adjust R1 for the trip point,
usually 14.4 V – 15 V for a 12 V SLA or a 12 V Ni-Cd battery.</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-75308362307097096202017-08-04T09:43:00.000-07:002017-08-04T09:43:43.095-07:00Simple Switch Mode Power Supply<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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The SMPS described here is suit-able for high-wattage stereos and other similar equipment. The circuit employs two high-voltage power transistors (BU208D) which have built-in re-verse-connected di-odes across their collectors and emitters. It can supply about 250-watt out-put. The circuit uses a ferrite core transformer of 14mm width, 20mm height, and 42mm length of E-E cores. An air gap of 0.5 mm is required between E-E junction. Good insulation using plastic-insulating sheets (Mylar) is to be maintained between each layer of winding. </div>
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<b>Simple Switch Mode Power Supply Circuit Diagram</b></div>
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The number of primary turns required is 90 with 26 SWG wire. The secondary winding employs 17 SWG wire (for 4A load current). Each turn of the secondary develops approximately 2 volts. The reader can decide about the output volt-age and the corresponding secondary turns, which would work out to be half the desired secondary voltage. The volt-age rating of capacitors C7 and C8 should be at least twice the secondary output of each secondary section. BY396 rectifier diodes shown on the secondary side can be used for a maximum load current of 3 amperes. </div>
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Two feedback windings (L1 and L2) using two turns each of 19 SWG wire are wound on the same core. These windings are connected to transistors T1 and T2 with a phase difference of 180o, as shown by the polarity dots in the figure. First wind the primary winding (90 turns using 26 SWG wire) on the former. Then wind the two feedback windings over the secondary (output). Ensure that each winding is separated by an insulation layer. Two separate heat sinks are to be pro-vided for the two transistors (BU208D). </div>
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The filter capacitor for mains should be of at least 47µF, 350V rating. It is better to use a 100µF, 350V capacitor. If the output is short-circuited by less than 8-ohm load, the SMPS would automatically turn off because of the absence of base current. The hfe min (current amplification factor) of BU208D is 2.5. Thus, sufficien base current is required for fully satu rated operation, otherwise the transistors get over-heated. At times, due to use of very high value of capacitors C7 and C8 (say 2200mF or so) on the secondary side or due to low load, the oscillations may cease on the primary side. This can be rectified by increasing the value of capacitor C6 to 0.01mF. </div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5874956776356946907.post-40986937322190203812017-07-15T21:59:00.000-07:002017-07-15T21:59:32.961-07:00Spy Camera Solar Power Box<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Battery life has always been a critical consideration for most of the electronic gadgets and equipment. When we talk about spy cameras, which normally function round-the-clock, they often run out of power within a few days. Many spy cameras (CCTV cameras) are powered by 9V PP3 type batteries that offer five times more energy than the regular 9V alkaline battery.</div>
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Mini CCTV cameras also accept 6-12V DC supply from AC mains adaptor through the DC IN jack. AC mains adaptor for the camera increases the capacity of the 9V PP3 battery but is bulky and noisy. Whether disposable or rechargeable batteries, making frequent replacement or recharging them is a cumbersome job. The unique solar power box described here serves an alternative solution to the problem.</div>
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<b>Spy Camera Solar Power Box Circuit Diagram </b><br />
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<b><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-egpZKAmCLJ4/WWryhUJnl7I/AAAAAAAAKlE/epdl8Sky-JYJQaw1eYhXriEB1O69S83_gCLcBGAs/s1600/Spy%2BCamera%2BSolar%2BPower%2BBox%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img alt="Spy Camera Solar Power Box Circuit Diagram" border="0" data-original-height="243" data-original-width="320" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-egpZKAmCLJ4/WWryhUJnl7I/AAAAAAAAKlE/epdl8Sky-JYJQaw1eYhXriEB1O69S83_gCLcBGAs/s1600/Spy%2BCamera%2BSolar%2BPower%2BBox%2BCircuit%2BDiagram.png" title="Spy Camera Solar Power Box Circuit Diagram" /></a></b></div>
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The circuit of the solar power box is simple. It contains a battery charger and a battery health indicator and a few other components. As shown in the circuit, DC supply available from the solar panel (SP1) is directly applied to the in-put of the circuit through a protection diode (D1). This diode is used to pre-vent the reverse current flow from the battery to the solar panel during night. Thus, D1 allows the current to flow from the solar panel to the battery only. Low-voltage-drop type 1N5817 diode is perfect for the job. </div>
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At the heart of the circuit is an integrated current source, realised using a popular 3-pin adjustable voltage regulator LM317T(IC1). This IC is designed to adjust its internal resistance between the In (pin 3) and Out (pin 2) terminals to maintain a constant voltage of 1.25V between the Out (pin 2) and Adj (pin 1) terminals. Here, a 9V, 280 mAh rechargeable PP3 type Ni-MH battery (BATT) is used as reservoir. Normally, a charging current of about 10 per cent of ampere-hour rating is safe for the battery. Resistor R1 (39-ohm, 0.5W), connected between pin 1 and 3 of IC1, limits the charging current to about 30 mA. DC output from the battery is available at output jack J2. Red LED ( LED1) is used as a battery ‘health’ indicator. Switch S1 is used to start the charging while S2 is used for connect-ing the load. Note that suitable heat sink should be used for the IC1.</div>
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The proper selection of solar panel is important but not critical. A miniature 12V type solar panel with a cur-rent output of about 100 mA can be used. Even if you have a solar panel with higher voltage rating, it will not create a problem as the circuit ensures that the charging current cannot exceed the predetermined value.</div>
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The circuit can be easily assembled on a general-purpose PCB and housed in a small plastic cabinet.</div>
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saifullah soomrohttp://www.blogger.com/profile/12231079112382569132noreply@blogger.com0